
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
Five types of verb phrase (VP) adverbials will be discussed in the following subsections:
- Process adverbials, expressing manner, instrument, means and
volition or referring to domain, e.g.
Example 1
Johan speel die viool met mening. Johan play the violin with intent Johan plays the violin with intent. - Agentive adverbials, which combine with the long passive, and are
expressed by a PP headed by deur
by, e.g.
Example 2
Die viool word deur Johan gepeel. the violin be.AUX.PASS.PRS by Johan play.PST.PTCP The violin is played by Johan. - Spatio-temporal adverbials which refer to place/location or time,
e.g.
Example 3
Hy speel die viool saans in die kombuis. he play the violin evenings in the kitchen In the evenings he plays the violin in the kitchen. - Contingency adverbials, relating to cause, reason, purpose,
result or concession, e.g.
Example 4
Hy speel die viool teen 'n fooitjie. he play the violin at a fee He plays the violin for a fee. - Predicate-degree adverbials, such as erg,
baie
very and 'n bietjie
a
bit.
Example 5
Hy oefen sy toonlere net 'n bietjie. he practice his scales only a little He practices his scales only a little.
In most cases the adverbials to be discussed here can be identified as VP adverbials by means of tests such as (a) the do extension test and (b) the entailment test, as illustrated by the examples in (6).
a. | Frik spring ligvoets oor die hekkie > Frik spring oor die hekkie en hy doen dit ligvoets. | ||||||||||||||
Frik jump gingerly over the hurdle > Frik jump over the hurdle and he do.PRS so gingerly | |||||||||||||||
Frik jumps over the hurdle gingerly > Frik jumps over the hurdle and he does so gingerly. |
b. | Frik spring ligvoets oor die hekkie > Frik spring oor die hekkie. | ||||||||||||||
Frik jump gingerly over the hurdle > Frik jump over the hurdle. | |||||||||||||||
Frik jumps over the hurdle gingerly > Frik jumps over the hurdle. |
Process adverbials modify the verb phrase, action, event or process itself, rather than the clause as a whole, and can be questioned by means of a WH-phrase, generally with hoe how, as in (b), and in some cases also with waarmee with what, as in (c), as interrogative pronouns.
Manner | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a. | Ronél het die dokument met sorg geliasseer. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Ronél have.AUX the document with care file.PST.PTCP | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Ronél filed the document with care. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
b. | Hoe het Ronél die dokument geliasseer? | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
how have.AUX Ronél the document file.PST.PTCP | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
How did Ronél file the document. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
c. | *Waarmee het Ronél die dokument geliasseer? | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
what.with have.AUX Ronél the document file.PST.PTCP | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
With what did Ronél file the document? |
Other examples are: deeglik thoroughly, tydsaam leisurely, and slordig slovenly.
Instrument | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a. | Chantal het die korpus met die rekenaar deursoek. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Chantal have.AUX the corpus with the computer through.search.PST.PTCP | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Chantal searched the corpus with the computer. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
b. | Hoe het Chantal die korpus deursoek? | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
how have.AUX Chantal the corpus through.search.PST.PTCP | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
How did Chantal search the corpus? | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
c. | Waarmee het Chantal die korpus deursoek? | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
what.with have.AUX Chantal the corpus through.search.PST.PTCP | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
With what did Chantal search the corpus? |
Other examples are: per hand by hand, and met die oog with the eye.
Means in general | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a. | Sarel het sy salaris met oortyd aangevul. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Sarel have.AUX his salary with over.time supplement.PST.PTCP | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Sarel supplemented his salary by means of overtime. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
b. | Hoe het Sarel sy salaris aangevul? | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
how have.AUX Sarel his salary supplement.PST.PTCP | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
How did Sarel supplement his salary? | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
c. | Waarmee het Sarel sy salaris aangevul? | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
what.with have.AUX Sarel his salary supplement.PST.PTCP | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
With what did Sarel supplement his salary? |
Other examples are energiek with energy, or met sy spaargeld with his savings.
Means of transportation | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a. | Jan het met die trein Kaap toe gegaan. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Jan have.AUX with the train Cape to.POSTP go.PST.PTCP | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Jan went to the Cape by train. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
b. | Hoe het Jan Kaap toe gegaan? | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
how have.AUX Jan Cape to.POSTP go.PST.PTCP | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
How did Jan go to the Cape? | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
c. | Waarmee het Jan Kaap toe gegaan? | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
what.with have.AUX Jan Cape to.POSTP go.PST.PTCP | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
With what did Jan go to the Cape? |
Other examples: per fiets by cycling, or te perd on horseback.
Means of communication | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a. | Charl het Chantal per e-pos genader. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Charl have.AUX Chantal by email approach.PST.PTCP | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Charl approached Chantal by email. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
b. | Hoe het Charl vir Chantal genader? | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
how have.AUX Charl for Chantal approach.PST.PTCP | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
How did Charl approach Chantal? | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
c. | Waarmee het Charl vir Chantal genader? | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
what.with have.AUX Charl for Chantal approach.PST.PTCP | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
With what did Charl approach Chantal? |
Other examples: telefonies by phone, or skriftelik in writing.
Volitional adverbials | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a. | Sarie het Chantal vrywillig bygestaan. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Sarie have.AUX Chantal voluntarily by.stand.PST.PTCP | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Sarie assisted Chantal voluntarily. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
b. | Hoe het Sarie vir Chantal bygestaan? | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
how have.AUX Sarie for Chantal by.stand.PST.PTCP | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
How did Sarie assist Chantal? | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
c. | Waarmee het Sarie vir Chantal bygestaan? | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
what.with have.AUX Sarie Chantal by.stand.PST.PTCP | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
With what did Sarie assist Chantal? |
Other examples: met opset on purpose, noodgedwonge by necessity, or per ongeluk by accident.
Domain adverbials | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a. | Sy vriendin is polities bedrywig. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
his friend is politically active | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
His friend is politically active. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
b. | Hoe is sy vriendin bedrywig? | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
how is his friend active | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
How is his friend active? | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
c. | ?Waarmee is sy vriendin bedrywig? | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
what.with is his friend active | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
?What is his friend active with? |
Other examples include digitaal digitally, geestelik spiritually, or verstandelik mentally.
Agentive adverbials form a very small set, virtually restricted to the deur by PP as used in the passive, as in (14), and comitative(saam) met together, in the company of PP, as in example (15). In both cases the doen extension test holds, and in the first the adverbial is replaceable by interrogative how how, as in (c), and deur wie by whom, as in (d):
a. | Ons pos word deur 'n briewebesteller afgelewer. | ||||||||||||||
our post be.AUX.PASS.PRS by a postman deliver.PST.PTCP | |||||||||||||||
Our post is delivered by a postman. |
b. | Ons pos word afgelewer en dit word deur 'n briewebesteller gedoen. | ||||||||||||||
our post be.AUX.PASS.PRS deliver.PST.PTCP and it be.AUX.PASS.PRS by a postman do.PST.PTCP | |||||||||||||||
Our post is delivered and it is done by a postman. |
c. | Hoe word ons pos afgelewer? | ||||||||||||||
how be.AUX.PASS.PRS our post deliver.PST.PTCP | |||||||||||||||
How is our post delivered? |
d. | Deur wie word ons pos afgelewer? | ||||||||||||||
by whom be.AUX.PASS.PRS our post deliver.PST.PTCP | |||||||||||||||
By whom is our post delivered? |
a. | Jannie het (saam) met sy vriende gaan swem. | ||||||||||||||
Jannie have.AUX together with his friends go.LINK swim.INF | |||||||||||||||
Jannie went swimming with his friends. |
b. | Jannie het gaan swem en dit (saam) met sy vriende gedoen. | ||||||||||||||
Jannie have.AUX go.LINK swim.INF and it together with his friends do.PST.PTCP | |||||||||||||||
Jannie went for a swim and did so together with his friends. |
Spatio-temporal VP adverbials situate an event in a certain location / space or at a given moment in time (i.e. punctual), as in (16a), or in its movement through space or time (i.e. expressing duration), as in (16b).
a. | Frieda speel in die middag tennis. | ||||||||||||||
Frieda play in the afternoon tennis | |||||||||||||||
Frieda plays tennis in the afternoon. |
b. | Fanie werk deurentyd aan sy verslag. | ||||||||||||||
Fanie work continuously on his report | |||||||||||||||
Fanie works continuously on his report. |
a. | Diana swem in die nuwe swembad. | ||||||||||||||
Diana swim in the new swim.pool | |||||||||||||||
Diana swims in the new swimming pool. |
b. | Diana hardloop (teen) die steiltes uit. | ||||||||||||||
Diana run against the cliffs out.POSTP | |||||||||||||||
Dina runs up against the cliffs. |
c. | Diana werk in die stad in. | ||||||||||||||
Diana work in the city in.POSTP | |||||||||||||||
Diana works in the city. |
Complementive PPs resemble spatio-temporal adverbials in indicating location or time, but refer to the subject (or logical subject) of the clause rather than the event, as in (18a). Note that they do not pass the tests for VP adverbials, as in (18b) and (18c).
a. | Diana is in die swembad. | ||||||||||||||
Dina is in the swim.pool | |||||||||||||||
Diana is in the swimming pool. |
b. | *Diana is en sy doen dit in die swembad. | ||||||||||||||
Diana is and she do so in the swim.pool | |||||||||||||||
To mean: Diana is and she does so in the swimming pool. |
c. | Diana is in die swembad > *Diana is. | ||||||||||||||
Diana is in the swim.pool > Diana is | |||||||||||||||
To mean: Diana is in the swimming pool. |
Aspectually, temporal VP adverbials may be punctual, as in (19a), or durative, as in (19b). Both types are in accordance with the VP adverbial test.
a. | Miemie het teen die aand langs die see gaan stap. | ||||||||||||||
Miemie have.AUX at the evening along the sea go.LINK walk.INF | |||||||||||||||
Towards the evening Miemie went walking on the beach. |
b. | Miemie het die hele nag goed geslaap. | ||||||||||||||
Miemie have.AUX the whole night well sleep.PST.PTCP | |||||||||||||||
Miemie slept well all night. |
Temporal adverbials, which are typically PPs, as in (20a), or temporal clauses, may be relational, i.e. replaceable by toe then, as in (20b), or non-relational, i.e. replaceable by daar there plus preposition, as in (20bi).
a. | Miemie het ná die vakansie gaan werk. | ||||||||||||||
Miemie have.AUX after the vacation go.LINK work.INF | |||||||||||||||
Miemie went to work after the vacation. |
b. | Miemie het toe gaan werk. |
Miemie have.AUX then go.LINK work.INF | |
Miemie went to work then. |
b.' | Miemie het daarna gaan werk. |
Miemie have PN.after go.LINK work.INF | |
Miemie went to work afterwards. |
In the case of durative PPs or temporal clauses, the pronominalisation should reflect the durative aspect:
a. | Miemie het sedert die ongeluk goed herstel. | ||||||||||||||
Miemie have.AUX since the accident well recover.PST.PTCP | |||||||||||||||
Miemie recovered well after the accident. |
b. | Miemie het toe/sedertdien/van toe af goed herstel. | ||||||||||||||
Miemie have.AUX then/since.then/from then on.POSTP well recover.PST.PTCP | |||||||||||||||
Miemie recovered well then / since then / from then on. |
Sedertdien since consists historically of preposition plus NP and is therefore suitable to express relational reference. In some temporal PPs, a relational pronominalisation is ruled out, e.g. in (22a), but not in (22b):
a. | Sy gaan haar tydens haar siekte stil gedra. |
she go.AUX.MOD her.REFL during her illness quietly behave.INF | |
She is going to comport herself quietly during her illness. |
a.' | Sy gaan haar dan/ daartydens stil gedra. |
she go.AUX.MOD her.REFL then / PN.during quietly behave.INF | |
She is going to comport herself quietly then. |
b. | Sy gaan in 2020 verder studeer. |
she go.AUX.MOD in 2020 further study.INF | |
She is going to study further in 2020. |
b.' | Sy gaan dan/ *daarin verder studeer. |
she go.AUX.MOD then/PN.in further study | |
She is going to study further then / *in it. |
The following clauses all contain VP adverbials as both tests are satisfied. While the adverbial in (23a) indicates the location at which certain actions take place, those in (23b) and (23c) indicate distance. Example (23c) differs from (23b) in that the adverbial in (23c) also has a complementive function, as a result of the semantic affinity between distance and running as a means of locomotion.
a. | Jan het op die muur gespring en gedans. | ||||||||||||||
Jan have.AUX on the wall jump.PST.PTCP and dance.PST.PTCP | |||||||||||||||
Jan jumped and danced on the wall. |
b. | Jan het die hele pad huis toe gefluit. | ||||||||||||||
Jan have.AUX the whole way home to.POSTP whistle.PST.PTCP | |||||||||||||||
Jan whistled all the way home. |
c. | Jan het die hele pad huis toe gehardloop. | ||||||||||||||
Jan have.AUX the whole way home to.POSTP run.PST.PTCP | |||||||||||||||
Jan ran all the way home. |
The following directional clauses differ from VP adverbials in that only the entailment test, not the do-test, is satisfied. There is, however, no reason to not consider them as VP adverbials.
a. | Jan het teen die muur op gespring en weer afgespring. |
Jan have.AUX against the wall up.POSTP jump.PST.PTCP and again off.jump.PST.PTCP | |
Jan jumped up against the wall and jumped down again. |
a.' | ?Jan het gespring en hy het dit teen die muur op gedoen. |
Jan have.AUX jump.PST.PTCP and he have.AUX so against the wall up.POSTP do.PST.PTCP | |
Jan jumped and he did so up against the wall. |
b. | Jan het huis toe gehardloop. |
Jan have.AUX home to.POSTP run.PST.PTCP | |
Jan ran home. |
b.' | ?Jan het gehardloop en hy het dit huis toe gedoen. |
Jan have.AUX run.PST.PTCP and he have.AUX so home to.POSTP do.PST.PTCP | |
To mean: Jan ran and he did so to home. |
c. | Jan het (in) die huis in gehardloop. |
Jan have.AUX in the house in.POSTP run.PST.PTCP | |
Jan ran into the house. |
c.' | *Jan het gehardloop en hy het dit (in) die huis in gedoen. |
Jan have.AUX run.PST.PTCP and he have.AUX so in the house in.POSTP do.PST.PTCP | |
Jan ran and he did so into the house. |
Copula predicates, although they may resemble adverbials, do not satisfy either of the tests, as illustrated by (25a), nor does the complement of the mutative isto be construction, as shown by (25b). Stadiger more slow(ly) is an adjective rather than an adverbial, which is also apparent from the fact that it has comparative morphology.The directional phrase huis toe in (25b) is a VP a directional adverbial as (in) die huis in into the house in example (24c) above, but triggers a mutative construction in combination with is, which has the function of auxiliary here.
a. | Jan raak stadiger. |
Jan get slow.ADJ.CMPR | |
Jan is getting slower. |
a.' | *Jan raak en hy doen dit stadiger. |
Jan get and he do so slow.ADJ.CMPR | |
To mean: Jan gets and he does so slower. |
a.'' | *Jan raak stadiger||> Jan raak . |
Jan get slow.ADJ.CMPR Jan get | |
Jan gets slower > *Jan gets. |
b. | Jan is huis toe. |
Jan be.AUX.PST home to.POSTP | |
Jan has gone home. |
b.' | *Jan is en hy doen dit huis toe. |
Jan is and he do so home to.POSTP | |
*Jan is and he does so towards home. |
b.'' | *Jan is huis toe||> Jan is. |
Jan be.AUX.PST home to.POSTP Jan is | |
Jan has gone home > *Jan is. |
Pronominal reference to VP adverbial PPs may be either non-relational, by means of deictic daar there, or relational, by including a preposition or other particle, e.g. daarop PN.on on that or daarheen it.to there (directional), thither. Locational adverbials are pronominalised by daar, as in (26ai) and (26bi) and sometimes relationally, i.e. through the addition of a preposition or particle, as in (26ai). The latter form of pronominalisation is, however, excluded in instances such as (26b). Directional adverbials are only pronominalised in the latter way, i.e. through the addition of a preposition or particle, as in (26c) and (26d). Here Afrikaans differs from English, where there would have been appropriate.
a. | Die vliegtuig vlieg bokant die wolke. |
the aeroplane fly above the clouds | |
The aeroplane flies above the clouds. |
a.' | Die vliegtuig vlieg daar/ daarbokant. |
the aeroplane fly there/PN.above | |
The aeroplane flies there / above it. |
b. | Die vliegtuig vlieg op 'n groot hoogte. |
the aeroplane flies on a great height | |
The aeroplane flies at a great height. |
b.' | Die vliegtuig vlieg daar/ *daarop. |
the aeroplane fly there / PN.above | |
The aeroplane flies there / above it. |
c. | Die vliegtuig vlieg deur die wolke. |
the aeroplane fly through the clouds | |
The aeroplane flies through the clouds. |
c.' | Die vliegtuig vlieg daardeur/ *daar. |
the aeroplane fly PN.through / there | |
The aeroplane flies through it / there. |
d. | Die vliegtuig vlieg Johannesburg toe. |
the aeroplane fly Johannesburg to.POSTP | |
The aeroplane flies to Johannesburg. |
d.' | Die vliegtuig vlieg daarheen/ *daar. |
the aeroplane fly there.to / there | |
The aeroplane flies to there / there. |
Broekhuis et al. (2015: 1136) reach the provisional conclusion "that adverbial locational PPs (as well as complementive PPs denoting a location) prototypically allow both a relational and non-relational reading, while complementive PPs denoting a change of location normally receive a relational reading only".
Contingency adverbials express, for instance, the reason or cause of an event (cf. the following examples). Semantically, the border between these two contingencies is fuzzy. Broekhuis et al. (2015: 1136) suggest that they differ in that cause can be established objectively, while reason may involve a subjective or personal assessment.
It is evident from the relevant tests that contingency adverbials may function as VP adverbials, e.g.
a. | Die blomme ontluik oor die reën. | ||||||||||||||
the flowers bud because.of the rain | |||||||||||||||
The flowers are budding because of the rain. |
b. | Die blomme ontluik en hulle doen dit oor die reën. | ||||||||||||||
the flowers bud and they do so because.of the rain | |||||||||||||||
The flowers are budding and they do so because of the rain. |
c. | Die blomme ontluik oor die reën. > Die blomme ontluik. | ||||||||||||||
the flowers bud because.of the rain | |||||||||||||||
The flowers are budding because of the rain. > The flowers are budding. |
Contingency adverbials are generally pronominalised by waarom/ hoekom why, and in the case of causal contingency, more specifically by waardeur through what. As pronominals, waarom/ daarom for what/that reason and waardeur/ daardeur because of what / because of that are intrinsically relational. In (28a), reason is expressed, and in (28b) cause.
a. | Waarom ontluik die blomme? |
why bud the flowers | |
Why are the flowers budding? |
a.' | Die blomme ontluik oor die reën. |
the flowers bud because.of the rain | |
The lowers are budding because of the rain. |
a.'' | Dit is daarom dat / waarom die blomme ontluik. |
it is therefore that.COMP / why the flowers bud | |
Therefore the flowers are budding./ That is why the flowers are budding. |
b. | Waardeur vergaan die bome? |
what.through perish the trees | |
Through what are the trees perishing? |
b.' | Die bome vergaan deur 'n klein kewertjie. |
the trees perish through a small beetle.DIM | |
The trees are perishing because of a small beetle. |
b.'' | Dit is daardeur dat die bome vergaan. |
it is PN.through that.COMP the trees perish | |
Therefore the trees are perishing. |
Gerrie werk oortyd vir meer geld. |
Gerrie work over.time for more money |
Gerrie works overtime with a view to earning more money. [purpose] |
Gerrie works overtime to generate more money. [result] |
Gerrie works overtime because he is in need of more money.[reason] |
A concessive adverbial headed by ondanks despite refers to the potential cause of an event which has not materialised:
Misdaad gedy ondanks beter polisiëring. |
crime flourish despite better policing |
Crime is flourishing in spite of better policing. |
A set of adjectival adverbials, such as baie very, erg badly, severely and kwaai seriously, are employed as modifiers of adjectives. It is not always clear why a particular adverbial is selected by a particular adjective, but there are subtle differences in semantic prosody and hance in collocational possibilities that require further investigation.
a. | Die nuwe bure lawaai erg/baie/kwaai. | ||||||||||||||
the new neighbours make.a.racket badly | |||||||||||||||
The new neighbours are making a severe racket. |
b. | Sy het die partytjie ?erg/baie/*kwaai geniet. | ||||||||||||||
she have.AUX the party.DIM very.much enjoy.PST.PTCP | |||||||||||||||
She enjoyed the party immensely. |
c. | Petrus het ?erg/baie/kwaai gedrink. | ||||||||||||||
Petrus have.AUX heavily drink.PST.PTCP | |||||||||||||||
Petrus drank heavily. |
Some adverbials modifying adjectives are employed as downtoners or mitigators:
a. | Die boemelaar het nogal aanddrag aangetrek. | ||||||||||||||
the tramp have.AUX suprisingly evening.dress on.put.PST.PTCP | |||||||||||||||
Surprisingly, the tramp put on evening dress. |
b. | Die prentjie is darem mooi, nè. | ||||||||||||||
the picture is rather nice not.so | |||||||||||||||
The picture is rather nice, isn't it? |
c. | Die kleintjie was bitter soet gewees. | ||||||||||||||
the kid was really well.behaved be.PST.PTCP | |||||||||||||||
The kid was really well behaved, wasn't he? |
- Broekhuis, Hans, Corver, Norbert & Vos, Riet2015Syntax of Dutch. Verbs and verb phrasesComprehensive grammar resourcesAmsterdam University Press
- Broekhuis, Hans, Corver, Norbert & Vos, Riet2015Syntax of Dutch. Verbs and verb phrasesComprehensive grammar resourcesAmsterdam University Press
