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    -er
    quickinfo

    The productive suffix -er is mainly used to derive nouns from verbs. These nouns can refer to personal or impersonal agents, instruments and patients, but can also be action nouns.

    Furthermore there is a small group of derivations with a different base: there are a few numerals, some nouns, a couple of adjectives, and also phrases. All derivations, independent of the category of their base, are nouns of common gender, and their plurals always end in -s.

    It should be noted that this suffix is also involved in the formation of synthetic compounds, in combination with a noun and a verb, and with a numeral and a noun.

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    [+]Introduction

    The suffix -er can be used to build nouns from verbs, nouns, adjectives, numerals and also phrases. All these derivations, independent of their base form category, are nouns of common gender, and their plurals always end in -s.

    When they refer to a person - for instance lêzer reader - the nouns are often not gender specific: they can refer to both men and women. Still, in some cases in which women are involved one rather would use a feminine form. An example is skriuwer writer (in general) versus skriuwster female writer. See the corresponding link for information about the feminine suffix -ster.

    Finally, there is also a suffix -er which forms inhabitant names from a geographical proper noun.

    [+]Verb as base

    The suffix -er is mainly used to derive nouns from verbs. These nouns can be personal or impersonal subjects, instruments, objects or action nouns. All have common gender.

    Firstly, examples of personal subjects are:

    Table 1
    Base form Derivation
    bakke to bake bakker baker
    lêze to read lêzer reader
    lige to lie liger liar
    beheare to manage behearder manager
    tsjoene to conjure tsjoender wizard
    stypje to support stiper supporter
    dreame to dream dreamer dreamer
    skriuwe to write skriuwer writer
    In the table above the base forms are only simplex, but bases can also be complex. Examples are listed below:

    • noun + verb + -er: fioele-bouw-er violin-build-SUFF violin maker, boek-bin-er book-bind-SUFF bookbinder;
    • adverb + verb + -er: bûten-stean-der outside-stand-SUFF outsider, dom-prat-er stupid-talk-SUFF fool;
    • particle + verb + -er: yn-brekk-er in-break-SUFF burglar, oer-sett-er over-set-SUFF translator.

    These formations need not necessarily to be considered as synthetic compounds, as the relevant complex verbs do exist in Frisian. Phrasal bases also occur; these will be discussed below in phrase as base.

    Verbs with stem allomorphy often show two forms. For example, the verb oankleie to accuse has two derivations: oankleier accuser and oanklager accuser. For more information about these forms, see irregular weak verbs belonging to class II.

    Quite common is the use of -er in the following expressions, where the derivation in -er denotes a guest by indicating the reason for visiting:

    1
    a. Wy krije moarn in kofjedrinker
    we get tomorrow a coffee.drink.SUFF
    Tomorrow a guest will come for a coffee
    b. Us heit makket it bêd klear foar de slieper
    our father makes the bed ready for the sleep.SUFF
    My father prepares the bed for our guest
    extra
    Dutch -ende and Frisian -er

    A difference with Dutch is the fact that the latter has two suffixes deriving agent nouns: -er and -ende, the latter with a formal and collective connotation. In Frisian, the original verbal ending -ende is not used for this purpose. Hence, we see that corresponding Dutch words with -ende often end in -er in Frisian. Examples are:

    Table 2
    Dutch Frisian
    belangstellende someone who is interested nigethawwer someone who is interested
    inzittende passenger ynsitter passenger
    woningzoekende house hunter wenningsiker house hunter
    omwonende neighbour omwenner neighbour
    overlevende survivor oerlibber survivor
    langstlevende longest liver langste libber longest liver
    hoogstbiedende highest bidder heechste bieder highest bidder

    More information on this contrast can be found in De Haan and Hoekstra (1993:19-21) and Hoekstra (1987).

    Secondly, as in other Germanic languages, the suffix -er also builds impersonal agent names from verbs. Examples are:

    Table 3
    Base form Derivation
    wize to point wizer pointer
    kuolje to cool kuoller cooler
    printsje to print printer printer
    rutewiskje to wipe the windows rutewisker screenwiper
    pakjedrage to carry packets pakjedrager carrier
    bommesmite to throw bombs bommesmiter bomber

    Thirdly, next to the impersonal subject names there are instrument names, i.e. things that one can use to perform something. Examples are:

    Table 4
    Base form Derivation
    stekke to stab, to put, to prick stekker plug
    bjinne to scrub bjinder scrubber
    klopje to knock, to beat klopper door knocker
    skroevedraaie to screw skroevedraaier screwdriver
    túnklauwe to rake the garden túnklauwer rake

    Fourth, object names may be derived with the help of -er, although this pattern is not quite widespread:

    Table 5
    Base form Derivation
    ite to eat iter a potato that is grown for consumption
    ompartsje to part omparter handout
    oanhingje to hang, be attached to something oanhinger trailer
    oerstrûpe to change clothes oerstrûper blouse

    Other suffixes that create object names are -sel and -ing.

    extra
    Homonymous derivations

    Sometimes, one derivation can have two meanings, because it may function both as an object noun and as a subject noun. The following example illustrates this. In the first sentence the derivation is an object noun, while in the second sentence the same word has been used as a personal subject:

    i
    a. Ik ha de oanhinger al oan 'e wein keppele
    I have the trailer already on the car connected
    I've attached the trailer to the car
    b. Sy is in oanhinger fan dy nije politike partij
    she is a supporter of that new political pary
    She is a supporter of the new political party

    Finally, the suffix can create action nouns, often derived from impersonal verbs. Here are some sentences illustrating this:

    2
    a. It sil fan 'e middei wol in reinder wurde
    it shall of the afternoon well a rain-SUFF become
    It will probably rain this afternoon
    b. Krekt foar't wy thús wienen, krigen wy noch in bêste snjitter
    just before we home were, got we still a best spout-SUFF
    Just before we got home, we got quite a shower
    c. Wy hienen in bêste skower yn 'e wyn op
    we had a best shove-SUFF in the wind on
    It was quite hard to cycle against the wind
    d. Hy hat noch krekt in skamper fan 'e gryp meikrigen
    he has still just a scuff-SUFF of the flu got
    He was infected by a residue of the flu

    Many of these derivations have something to do with the weather. Below, base forms and exact meanings are given:

    Table 6
    Base forms Derivations
    reine to rain reinder long lasting shower
    snjitte to spout snjitter quick heavy shower
    driuwe to float driuwer gentle breeze, just enough to be able to sail
    stowe to drizzle stower drizzle
    extra
    Literature

    More examples of this kind can be found in Tjepkema (1978:51).

    [+]Noun as base

    The suffix -er can also follow other word classes than verbs. For instance, it can be attached to nouns:

    Table 7
    Base form Derivation
    skip ship skipper captain
    mûne mill mûnder miller
    die(d) deed, act dieder perpetrator

    In line with the core of the verbal bases, these derivations more or less carry an idea of agentivity. For example, a mûnder miller lets a mill function in its proper way.

    There are also examples where the noun is followed by the allomorph -ner. This especially occurs after dental stops:

    Table 8
    Base form Derivation
    keunst art keunstner artist
    amt office amtner public servant
    skuld debt, guilt skuldner debtor
    klûs hermitage klûzner hermit

    The noun widner widower seems to have been derived from female widdo widow with truncation of the final segment /o:/.

    The nominal base is often complex, as for example haad-fak head-subject major subject > haadfakker major student. Acronyms can be input as well: FNP Frisian National Party > FNP'er FNP.SUFF supporter or member of the Frisian National Party.

    [+]Adjective as base

    There are only a few adjectives that can be followed by -er. One is frijwillich voluntary > frijwilliger volunteer.

    There are also two predicatively used adjectives that can take -er. One example is the univerbation útfanhûs out-of-house staying as visitor. From this can be derived útfanhuzer, as in:

    3
    Us heit makket it bêd klear foar de útfanhuzer
    our father makes the bed ready for the out.of.house.SUFF
    My father prepares the bed for our guest

    The other predicatively used adjective is fuort away, which becomes fuorter someone who likes to go out. This fuorter is a negative polarity item:

    4
    Ik bin net sa'n fuorter
    I am not such.a away.SUFF
    I do not like going out
    [+]Numeral as base

    Decades can be followed by -er as well. Examples are tachtich eighty > tachtiger person in his/her eighties and twintich twenty > twintiger person in his/her twenties. Again, these nouns always have common gender. (Another suffix -er that takes the same numeral bases but rather forms adjectives is dealt with in -er forming adjectives out of numerals).

    [+]Phrase as base

    Sometimes, the suffix -er may also take phrasal bases. An example is twaddeklasser second-class-SUFF person belonging to the second class. The suffix -er even functions in very complex constructions, for example in:

    5
    Dat is sa'n bern-bûten-op-'e-dyk-omrinnelitter
    that is such.a child-outside-on-the-road-araound-walk.INF-let.SUFF
    That is a parent who leaves his children walking outside, without paying attention to them

    Hoekstra (1987:11-23) analyses this kind of constructions from a syntactic point of view.

    [+]Phonological properties

    In the case of stems ending in [-r], like behear, a segment [d] has to be inserted: behearder manager. If the stem ends in [-l] or [-n], the insertion is optional. An example is hurdrin(d)er runner. For d-insertion, see /d/-insertion in the sequences /nər/, /lər/, and /rər/.

    extra
    A meaning difference between forms with or without [d]-insertion

    In the case of the verb bjinne to scrub the derivation can be either bjinner scrubber or bjinder scrubber. The form with the inserted [d] can refer to both the acting person and the instrument, while the form without the [d] can only refer to a person.

    extra
    Literature

    This topic is mainly based on Hoekstra (1998:96-98).

    References
    • Haan, Rienk de & Hoekstra, Jarich1993Morfologyske tûkelteammen by de leksikale útwreiding fan it FryskIt Beaken5514-31
    • Hoekstra, JarichOver woord- en woordgroepstructuur
    • Hoekstra, Jarich1987Ynsitters en wenningsikers?Friesch Dagblad03-10Taalsnipels 49
    • Hoekstra, Jarich1998Fryske wurdfoarmingLjouwertFryske Akademy
    • Tjepkema, Hotze1978Efkes TaelbuorkjeKoperative Utjowerij, Ljouwert
    About this article
    Author(s): Siebren Dyk, Truus de Vries
    Category: Frisian Morphology
    Keywords: suffixnounagent nounaction nounallomorphy
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