
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
Adverbials are usually formed by adverbs, preposition phrases and adverbial clauses, but the noun phrase has a restricted use to function as adverbial as well. NPs can be used as temporal adverbials in particular, to express specific points in time or specific durations. Syntactically, there are two types of NPs used: NPs that identify a unique period or point in time, or noun phrases that combine a common noun with an appropriate modifier to pinpoint the period or point in time.
Specific temporal expressions the identify a period or point in time uniquely include the name of a particular day or period, e.g. proper nouns like Maandag Monday, Kersdag Christmas Day, or Maart March, or NPs headed by common nouns that denote conventionalised temporal units, like the names of seasons (lente spring, somer summer) or timespans like week week, jaar year, naweek weekend, or langnaweek long weekend.
Noun phrases that convey a point in time or a timespan through modification of a general temporal noun are expressions like die volgende oggend the following morning, die afgelope jaar the previous year or aanstaande week next week.
Temporal NPs are used in the typical adverbial positions that adverbs and PPs can also occupy, such as the clause-initial position or in the middle field (as long as they do not precede the subject). While not absolutely excluded from the post-verbal field, temporal adverbials are very infrequent after the main verb in the verb-final position. The position of temporal adverbial NPs is illustrated by the examples in (1).
a. | Die afgelope somer was daar ook enkele plase wat reën gekry het. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
[(CI) die afgelope somer] [(V2) was] [(MF) daar ook enkele plase wat reën gekry het] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
the past summer be.PST there also some farms that.REL rain get.PST have.AUX | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The past summer there were also a few farms that did get rain. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
PCSA |
b. | Elke naweek en elke vakansiedag sal daar ten minste twee tandartse aan diens wees. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
[(CI) elke naweek en elke vakansiedag] [(V2) sal] [(MF) daar ten minste twee tandartse aan diens] [(VF) wees] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
every weekend and every holiday.day will.AUX there at.the least two dentists on duty | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Every weekend and every public holiday there will.AUX.MOD be at least two dentists on duty. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
PCSA |
c. | Toe het hulle vier jaar daar gebly. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
[(CI) toe] [(V2) het] [(MF) hulle vier jaar daar] [(VF) gebly] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
then have.AUX they four years there stay.PST | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Then they stayed there for four years. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
PCSA |
d. | Beplan u volgende jaar 'n soortgelyke projek? | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
[(V1) beplan] [(MF) u volgende jaar 'n soortgelyke projek] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
plan you next year a similar project | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Do you plan a similar project for next year? | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
PCSA |
e. | En so het ons elke dag skool gebank. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
[(CI) en so] [(V2) het] [(MF) ons elke dag skool] [(VF) gebank] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
and PTCL.REL have.AUX we every day school bunk.PST | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
And so we bunked school every day. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
PCSA |
Definite NPs with an appropriate head noun can be used to identify a specific point in time or a timespan, which can be used as temporal adverbial. For timespans, a modifier such as hele whole/entire indicating the extent of the time span is typical, whereas for points in time, relational modifiers like volgende next and vorige previous are common. The options are illustrated by the examples in (2).
a. | Die naweek sien ek hoe vuil die wêreld om ons raak. | ||||||||||||||
the weekend see I how dirty around us become | |||||||||||||||
This weekend I saw how dirty the world around us became. | |||||||||||||||
TK | |||||||||||||||
[Point in time] |
b. | Mense het verlede naweek van oral na die damwal kom kyk. | ||||||||||||||
people have.AUX last weekend from over.all to the dam.wall come.LINK look | |||||||||||||||
People came from all over last weekend to have a look at the dam wall. | |||||||||||||||
TK | |||||||||||||||
[Point in time] |
c. | Ek het die hele naweek net in 'n hoekie van die sel bly sit. | ||||||||||||||
I have.AUX the whole weekend just in a corner.DIM of the cell stay.LINK sit | |||||||||||||||
I just sat in a corner of the cell for the whole weekend. | |||||||||||||||
TK | |||||||||||||||
[Timespan] |
Indefinite NPs are used to identify the timespan mainly, and can either use units of time such as uur hour or dag day, or else informal ways of chunking time, like oomblik moment. The indefinite NPs expressing timespan are usually interchangeable with a preposition phrase headed by vir for with the NP as PP-complement, or else an AP headed by lank long, where the NP is a premodifier of the head AP. Ponelis(1979:341) is of the view that NPs denoting timespan can be analysed as reduced variants of the AP with lank.
a. | Laat die beslag nou ten minste 'n uur staan. |
let.LINK the batter now at.the least an hour stand.INF | |
Let the batter stand for at least an hour. | |
TK |
a.' | Laat die beslag nou ten minste 'n uur lank staan. |
let.LINK the batter now at.the least an hour long stand.INF |
b. | Hy bly 'n oomblik stil. |
he stay.PRS a moment quiet | |
He stays quiet for a moment. | |
TK |
b.' | Hy bly vir 'n oomblik stil. |
he stay.PRS for a moment quiet | |
He remains quiet for a moment. |
Similar to definite and indefinite NPs with temporal meaning, a quantifier expression can be combined with a head noun that refers to conventional unit for measurement of duration, which is quantified by premodifier. Quantified NPs can be used for intervals, such as drie uur three hours, vyf jaar five years, or drie weke three weeks, but also for the expression of frequency, such as drie aande three evenings, or elke tweede maand every second month. Quantified noun phrases have similar distributions to definite and indefinite NPs when used as temporal adverbials, as shown in example (4).
a. | Agt jaar het dit so tussen hulle gegaan. | ||||||||||||||
eight years have.AUX it PTCL.REL between them go.PST | |||||||||||||||
For eight years, it went like this between them. | |||||||||||||||
TK |
b. | Elke tweede aand eet hulle braaivleis saam met die sersante en luitenante. | ||||||||||||||
every second evening eat they barbeque.meat together with the seargeants and luitenants | |||||||||||||||
Every second night they eat barbeque with the seargeants and luitenants. | |||||||||||||||
TK, adjusted |
c. | Hulle is al twee jaar getroud. | ||||||||||||||
they be.PRS already two years married | |||||||||||||||
They have already been married for two years. | |||||||||||||||
TK |
d. | Ons het omtrent elke tweede aand seks. | ||||||||||||||
we have about every second evening sex | |||||||||||||||
We have sex approximately every second night. | |||||||||||||||
TK |
The names of days (Maandag Monday, Dinsdag Tuesday), months (Januarie January, Februarie February), or seasons (lente spring, somer summer), as well as names denoting unique days (typically public holidays or religious festivals) like Kersdag Christmas Day, Nasionale Braaidag National Braai Day, or Hemelvaart Day of Ascension can be used to denote a point in time (days in particular), or a timespan. These names can be modified or quantified in noun phrases to make the reference more precise, e.g. die hele somer the whole summer, (die) volgende Maandag (the) next Monday, begin November beginning of November. Their syntactic distribution is similar to all the other NPs that function as temporal adverbials.
a. | Die afgelope Maandag het hy die skool se nommer by iemand gekry. | ||||||||||||||
the past Monday have.AUX he the school PTCL.GEN number from someone get.PST | |||||||||||||||
The past Monday he got the number for the school from somebody. | |||||||||||||||
TK, adjusted |
b. | Maandag het 'n klomp klankinsetsels op RSG se oggend-nuusbulletin ook "baaaaie baaaaie ver" geklink. | ||||||||||||||
Monday have.AUX a bunch sound.inserts on RSG PTCL.GEN morning-news.bulletin also very.EMP very.EMP far sound.PST | |||||||||||||||
(On) Monday, a number of sound inserts on the morning news bulletin of RSG sounded very, very distant. | |||||||||||||||
TK |
c. | Die Pukke het die afgelope Maandag in Potchefstroom sy oomblikke gehad. | ||||||||||||||
the Pukke have.AUX the past Monday in Potchefstroom his moments have.PST | |||||||||||||||
The Pukke had their moments in Potchefstroom this past Monday. | |||||||||||||||
TK |
d. | Die ander seun het Caville glo al Maandag gewaarsku. | ||||||||||||||
the other boy have.AUX Caville apparently already Monday warn.PST | |||||||||||||||
The other boy apparently warned Caville on Monday already. | |||||||||||||||
TK |
- Ponelis, F.A1979Afrikaanse sintaksis.Van Schaik
