- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- Introduction to Frisian
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans Consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological Processes
- Phonotactics
- Segment inventory
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Introduction to Noun Phrases
- Introduction to Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution
- Predication
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Introduction to Verb Phrases
- Phonology
A few Frisian prepositions may be extended by the superlative suffix, i.e. -ste. In this way, these prepositions turn into an adjective, which has the syntactic restriction that it may only be used attributively. Semantically, such formations may only occur with specific reference. A further property is that they are typically used in oppositions. Examples are boppeste toskenupper teeth versus ûnderste toskenlower teeth, or it foarste tsjilthe front wheel versus it efterste tsjilthe back wheel.
A few prepositions (adpositions) can be turned into an adjective by way of the superlative suffix. These are:
Base form | Derivation |
boppeabove | boppesteupper |
ûnderunder | ûndersteunder |
foarbefore | foarsteforemost |
efterafter | efterstelast |
binneninside | binnensteinner |
bûtenoutside | bûtensteouter |
Actually, it is rather strange for the comparative suffix to be added to a preposition, since the comparative is usually restricted to adjectives or adverbs. In fact, it can be thought that it is rather the adverbial use of these adpositions that is suffixed here. The adpositions involved all denote a spatial position, more specifically in an opposition to one of the other derivations in this field. In addition, there is the formation middelstemiddlemost, which must have been derived from the particle middel-, which only occurs as the first element of compounds, and is related to middenmiddle.
The adjectives formed in this way are mainly restricted to attributive use:
a. | De boppeste tonne | ||||||||||||||
the above-SUPL buoy | |||||||||||||||
The most windward buoy |
b. | *Dy tonne waard boppeste | ||||||||||||||
that buoy became above-SUPL | |||||||||||||||
That buoy became the most windward one |
a. | It foarste tsjil | ||||||||||||||
the for-SUPL wheel | |||||||||||||||
The front wheel |
b. | *Dit tsjil is foarste | ||||||||||||||
this wheel is for-SUPL | |||||||||||||||
This is the front wheel |
An exception is the idiomatical use in sailing races, as in
Ulbe Zwaga is/leit no boppest(e) |
Ulbe Zwaga is/lays now above-SUPL |
Ulbe Zaga is now in the most windward position |
In practice, these formations usually entail an opposition: 'before' versus 'after', 'above' versus 'under', 'inner' versus 'outer'. The form middelstemiddle can be seen as expressing an intermediate position between these extremes. It is striking that exclusive concepts are involved, for instance wheels of a bicycle (either front or back, in it foarste / efterste tsjilthe front wheel / the back wheel), lips (upper or under, in de boppeste / ûnderste toskenthe upper teeth / the under teeth) or tracks (inner or outer, in de binnenste / bûtenste baanthe inner track / the outer track). There are no positions in between on the scale. That may also be the reason that the comparative form is not appropriate here, i.e. *de boppe-r-e laachthe above-COMP-INFL layerthe layer more situated to the top.
Dutch also has these superlative forms, but then only in real superlative applications, and not for situations with an opposition. Thus Dutch de bovenste verdiepingthe above-SUPL floorthe upper floor can be used for a building which is ten floors high, a use which is also possible in Frisian. If, however, there are only two floors, Dutch will use a compound, i.e. de boven-verdiepingthe above-floorthe upper / top floor. In Frisian, the superlative will likewise be invoked in such a case: de boppeste ferdjipping.
Note that German uses the comparative form instead of the superlative, for example in die obere / mittlere / untere Schichtthe upper / middle / lower level.
There is a semantic property that restricts these formations further: they can only have a specific reference, and cannot refer to a kind. Compare the following sentences:
a. | Der sit in slach yn it efterste tsjil | ||||||||||||||
there sits a turn in the after-SUPL wheel | |||||||||||||||
The back wheel of my bike is buckled |
b. | *Yn it fytsfabryk moatte no earst nije efterste tsjillen assemblearre wurde | ||||||||||||||
in the bicycle-factory must now first new after-SUPL wheels assembled be | |||||||||||||||
Firstly, new back wheels should be assembled in the bicycle factory |
To refer to a specific kind of wheels, Frisian takes recourse to a compound, in this case eftertsjillenafter-wheel-PLback wheels. It should be noted, however, that this use of superlative forms of prepositions with a specific reference is diminishing nowadays, under the influence of Dutch.
For a general description, see Hoekstra (1986). Special attention to the specific reference of these formations is paid in Hoekstra (1998:47-48) and in Hoekstra (2002:247-248).
- Hoekstra, Jarich1986In boppeste tosk troch de ûnderste lippeFriesch Dagblad1-11Taalsnipels 7
- Hoekstra, Jarich1998Fryske wurdfoarmingLjouwertFryske Akademy
- Hoekstra, Jarich2002Genitive Compounds in Frisian as Lexical PhrasesThe Journal of Comparative Germanic Linguistics6227-259
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Phonological processes in casual speech
[76%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonological processes
- The spelling of linking elements in compounds
[74%] Dutch > Phonology > Spelling
- Onset: sequences of two consonants
[74%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonotactics > Syllable level > Onsets > Complex onsets
- Stress retraction
[73%] Dutch > Phonology > Word stress > Stress in complex words > Stress shifts
- Phonotactics at the word level
[73%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonotactics
- /t/-deletion before the suffix -st
[77%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes
- Cliticization
[77%] Frisian > Phonology > Clitics
- Schwa deletion as a synchronic process: how to deal with lapses
[76%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Schwa deletion
- /d/-insertion in the sequences /nər/, /lər/, and /rər/
[76%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes
- /r/-deletion in simplex words
[76%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes > /r/-deletion
- Rhotacism
[75%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes
- d-deletion
[73%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes > Consonant cluster simplification: Overview
- Onset: sequences of three consonants
[72%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonotactics > Onset
- Vowel derounding
[72%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Vowel related processes
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[72%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Vowel related processes
- Dutch
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- Adjectival inflection
[78%] Dutch > Morphology > Inflection
- Case - the partitive construction
[76%] Dutch > Morphology > Inflection > Nouns > Case
- Nominal suffixation: diminutives
[76%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Nouns > Nominal suffixes
- -ing
[75%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Nouns > Nominal suffixes
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[75%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation
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[81%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Numerals
- Ellipsis
[81%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Adjectives
- In prenominal position
[80%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Adjectives
- Cardinal numbers
[80%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Numerals
- -DIM (diminutive)
[79%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Nominal suffixes > Noun as base
- Inputs and input restrictions
[74%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Non-native affixes
[70%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Conversion
[70%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation
- Nominalisation – Person names
[69%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Affixation
[69%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
[80%] Dutch > Syntax > Adpositions and adpositional phrases > 1 Characteristics and classification > 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 4.2. Syntactic uses of equatives, comparatives and superlatives
[80%] Dutch > Syntax > Adjectives and Adjective Phrases > 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5.1.4.3. The definite article in measure phrases
[80%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns > 5.1. Articles > 5.1.4. Deviant semantics
- 6.2.3. Special cases
[79%] Dutch > Syntax > Adjectives and Adjective Phrases > 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase > 6.2. Complementive use of the adjective
- 11.3.3. Topicalization
[79%] Dutch > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement) > 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- Referentiality versus quantification
[76%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Embedded Verb Second > Verb-second in embedded clauses > Linearity and referentiality
- Restriction of the B-construction to modals
[75%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Expression of irrealis
- The adverb of manner & degree sa 'so' and negation
[74%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Negation
- No NP-complements
[74%] Frisian > Syntax > Adposition Phrases > Complementation > Postpositions + simple complements > No complements to postpositions
- The transitive verb of predication hawwe 'have'
[73%] Frisian > Syntax > Adjective Phrases > Predication > Complementive constructions > Transitive predication > Aspectual hawwe
- Mood
[77%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Characterization and classification
- Superlative
[76%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Adjective Phrases > Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Modification of the superlative
[76%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Adjective Phrases > Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree > Superlative
- Middle formation
[75%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Alternations > Alternations involving the external argument
- Attribution
[75%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Adjective Phrases
