- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- Introduction to Frisian
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans Consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological Processes
- Phonotactics
- Segment inventory
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Introduction to Noun Phrases
- Introduction to Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution
- Predication
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Introduction to Verb Phrases
- Phonology
Frisian was seen to exhibit incorporation with to-infinitives, whereas Dutch lacks incorporation with to-infinitives. The phenomenon of incorporation in itself is also found in other syntactic contexts beside to-infinitivals.
Incorporation may take place with ordinary infinitives, as shown below:
a. | Ik sjoch him fotoynplakken | ||||||||||||||
I see him photograph.in.glue | |||||||||||||||
I see him sticking photographs in an album |
b. | Se liet him fotoynplakke | ||||||||||||||
she let him photograph.in.glue | |||||||||||||||
She let him stick photographs in an album |
As can be seen from the examples above, incorporation may take place both with the ordinary infinitive, which normally ends in sjwa, and with the gerundial infinitive, which always ends in a nasal. Incorporation is also found inside a nominalisation:
a. | It fotoynplakken is hast dien | ||||||||||||||
the photograph.in.glue is almost done | |||||||||||||||
They have almost finished sticking photographs in an album |
b. | It oprêden fan it hûs is hast dien | ||||||||||||||
the up.clean of the house is almost done | |||||||||||||||
They have almost finished cleaning up the house |
Incorporation may also target finite verbs, as in the following examples:
a. | Heit ierappeldolt de hiele dei | ||||||||||||||
father potato.digs the whole day | |||||||||||||||
Our father is digging potatoes all day long |
b. | Ik ha noch net messeslipe | ||||||||||||||
I have yet not knife-sharpened | |||||||||||||||
I have not been sharpenign knives |
On the whole, incorporation targets collocational activity verbs which have a habitual implication. So it is the same combinations of verb and object which are found in incorporated structures, regardless of whether these structures are to-infinitivals, normal infinitivals, nominalisations or tensed verbs.
In one respect, incorporation targeting tensed verbs differs from incorporation targeting untensed structures. Incorporation targeting tensed verbs cannot just target a particle:
a. | Hâld ris op te oprêden | ||||||||||||||
hold DcP up to up.clean | |||||||||||||||
Stop cleaning up (all the time) |
b. | *Hy oprêdt de hiele dei | ||||||||||||||
he up.cleans the whole day | |||||||||||||||
He is cleaning up the whole day |
The ungrammatical example improves in case an incorporated object is added:
?*Hy hûsoprêdt de hiele dei |
he house.up.cleans the whole day |
He is cleaning up the house the whole day |
The ungrammaticality may be due to some aspectual matter. What is even more remarkable, is that noun incorporation into the tensed verb is allowed below the particle, so that the noun intervenes between particle and verb, but in that case the particle is not selected by the verb. An example is given below, involving the intensifying particle oanto:
Moatst mar oan-prikkebarne |
must.2SG DcP to-stick.burn |
You must burn lots of sticks |
The incorporated object shows up between the particle and the untensed verb. Normal cases of particle and object incorporation feature the order in which the particle precedes the object, as in the example below:
Moatst mar fotoynplakke |
must.2SG DcP photograph.in.glue |
You must stick photographs in an album |
It is not allowed with a tensed verb:
?*Hy fotoynplakt mar raak! |
he photograph.in.glue DcP a.lot |
He is intensively sticking photographs in an album |
Combination of the two particle structures is ungrammatical:
*Moatst mar oan- fotoynplakke |
must.2SG DcP to- photograph.in.glue |
You must stick lots of photographs in an album |
A similar example of incorporation below the particle involves the intensifying particle tato:
No kinne wy mar ta-brijite |
now can we DcP to-porridge.eat |
Now we can eat lots of porridge |
The verb must be untensed:
*Do ta-brijytst mar raak! |
you to-porridge.eat DcP a.lot |
You eat quite a lot of porridge |
A related case involves the detensifying particle omaround, which can be viewed as the contrary of intensifying particles. This particle also allows object incorporation below it, as shown below:
Ik lit net mei my om-kedsjemenne |
I let not with me around-cob.drive |
I do not let myself be pissed around |
Again the incorporating verb may not be tensed:
*Se om-kedsjemenne mei my |
they around-cob.drive with me |
They piss around with me |
So, object incorporation into untensed verbs is allowed below intensifying and detensifying particles, provided the verb is untensed, just as particle incorporation itself is allowed with untensed verbs only.
On the whole, tensed verbs are more restrictive with respect to the elements which may undergo incorporation than infinitives, as was shown above with respect to particles. The same observation can be made for obligatory adjuncts. They may incorporate into infinitives, but not into tensed verbs, as shown below:
a. | Omdat se oan in trapeze hong te gefaarlik-dwaan | ||||||||||||||
because she to a trapeze hung to dangerous-do | |||||||||||||||
Because she was courting danger, hanging from a trapeze |
b. | *Se gefaarlikdocht no al de hiele dei | ||||||||||||||
she dangerous.do now DcP the whole day | |||||||||||||||
She has been courting danger the whole day |
More details can be found in Dyk (1997).
- Dyk, Siebren1997Noun incorporation in FrisianLeeuwardenFryske Akademy
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Intonation
[69%] Dutch > Phonology > Accent & intonation
- Phonological processes in casual speech
[67%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonological processes
- Phonotactics at the word level
[66%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonotactics
- Acoustic correlates of stress
[66%] Dutch > Phonology > Accent & intonation
- The spelling of vowels
[66%] Dutch > Phonology > Spelling
- /t/-deletion before the suffix -st
[72%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes
- Final /d/-deletion
[72%] Frisian > Phonology > Allomorphy
- /d/-insertion in the sequences /nər/, /lər/, and /rər/
[72%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes
- Verb stems (present tense stems) with and without final consonant
[72%] Frisian > Phonology > Allomorphy
- Is the complex segment /ts/ an affricate?
[71%] Frisian > Phonology > Segment inventory > Sequences involving s & plosives
- The phonotactics of Afrikaans
[68%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonotactics
- Homorganic glide insertion
[67%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes
- Nasal assimilation
[65%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes
- Nasalization
[65%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Vowel related processes
- Quality alternation of back vowels
[65%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Vowel related processes
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
[76%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Compounding
- Particle verbs
[73%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Compounding
- -ing
[70%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Nouns > Nominal suffixes
- be-
[70%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Verbs > Verbal prefixes
- Adjectival inflection
[70%] Dutch > Morphology > Inflection
- General categories
[74%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Verbs
- Strong and other irregular verbs
[73%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Verbs
- Degree
[73%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Adjectives
- V > N
[73%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Conversion > Nominal conversion
- -jei
[73%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Verbal suffixes > Noun as base
- Prefixation
[64%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
[63%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Meaning of affixes
[62%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Inputs and input restrictions
[62%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Circumfixation
[62%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- 1.2.4. Intransitive adpositions
[77%] Dutch > Syntax > Adpositions and adpositional phrases > 1 Characteristics and classification > 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 2.2.3. Resultative constructions
[75%] Dutch > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure > 2.2. Complementives (secondary predicates)
- 1.3.1.5. Intransitive adpositions and verbal particles
[75%] Dutch > Syntax > Adpositions and adpositional phrases > 1 Characteristics and classification > 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases > 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
[75%] Dutch > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations > 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 6.2.1. Perfect auxiliaries
[74%] Dutch > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs > 6.2. Non-main verbs selecting a participle
- As an adjunct specifying an activity to 'do' in an exclamative interrogative
[76%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > To-infinitival clauses > Incorporating to-infinitives
- Verbs and Verb Phrases in Frisian
[76%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Combining with to-infinitives
[75%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Predication and noun incorporation > Copulas
- The third construction
[74%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > To-infinitival clauses > Verbal to-infinitives
- Constructions with verbs and verb clusters
[74%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Characteristics and classification
- Infinitive complement clauses: construction forms
[73%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Complement clauses > Infinitive complement clauses
- Mood
[73%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Characterization and classification
- Complementive constructions
[71%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Adjective Phrases > Predication
- Finite interrogative complement clauses: syntactic distribution
[71%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Complement clauses > Finite interrogative complement clauses
- The regular passive
[71%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Alternations > Alternations involving the external argument > Passivisation
