- Dutch1
- Frisian
- Saterfrisian
- Afrikaans
-
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
-
- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Compositions
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
-
- General
- Morphology
- Morphology
- 1 Word formation
- 1.1 Compounding
- 1.1.1 Compounds and their heads
- 1.1.2 Special types of compounds
- 1.1.2.1 Affixoids
- 1.1.2.2 Coordinative compounds
- 1.1.2.3 Synthetic compounds and complex pseudo-participles
- 1.1.2.4 Reduplicative compounds
- 1.1.2.5 Phrase-based compounds
- 1.1.2.6 Elative compounds
- 1.1.2.7 Exocentric compounds
- 1.1.2.8 Linking elements
- 1.1.2.9 Separable Complex Verbs and Particle Verbs
- 1.1.2.10 Noun Incorporation Verbs
- 1.1.2.11 Gapping
- 1.2 Derivation
- 1.3 Minor patterns of word formation
- 1.1 Compounding
- 2 Inflection
- 1 Word formation
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Adjectives and adjective phrases (APs)
- 0 Introduction to the AP
- 1 Characteristics and classification of APs
- 2 Complementation of APs
- 3 Modification and degree quantification of APs
- 4 Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative
- 5 Attribution of APs
- 6 Predication of APs
- 7 The partitive adjective construction
- 8 Adverbial use of APs
- 9 Participles and infinitives as APs
- Nouns and Noun Phrases (NPs)
- 0 Introduction to the NP
- 1 Characteristics and Classification of NPs
- 2 Complementation of NPs
- 3 Modification of NPs
- 3.1 Modification of NP by Determiners and APs
- 3.2 Modification of NP by PP
- 3.3 Modification of NP by adverbial clauses
- 3.4 Modification of NP by possessors
- 3.5 Modification of NP by relative clauses
- 3.6 Modification of NP in a cleft construction
- 3.7 Free relative clauses and selected interrogative clauses
- 4 Partitive noun constructions and constructions related to them
- 4.1 The referential partitive construction
- 4.2 The partitive construction of abstract quantity
- 4.3 The numerical partitive construction
- 4.4 The partitive interrogative construction
- 4.5 Adjectival, nominal and nominalised partitive quantifiers
- 4.6 Kind partitives
- 4.7 Partitive predication with a preposition
- 4.8 Bare nominal attribution
- 5 Articles and names
- 6 Pronouns
- 7 Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- 8 Interrogative pronouns
- 9 R-pronouns and the indefinite expletive
- 10 Syntactic functions of Noun Phrases
- Adpositions and Adpositional Phrases (PPs)
- 0 Introduction to the PP
- 1 Characteristics and classification of PPs
- 2 Complementation of PPs
- 3 Modification of PPs
- 4 Bare (intransitive) adpositions
- 5 Predication of PPs
- 6 Form and distribution of adpositions with respect to staticity and construction type
- 7 Adpositional complements and adverbials
- Verbs and Verb Phrases (VPs)
- 0 Introduction to the VP in Saterland Frisian
- 1 Characteristics and classification of verbs
- 2 Unergative and unaccusative subjects and the auxiliary of the perfect
- 3 Evidentiality in relation to perception and epistemicity
- 4 Types of to-infinitival constituents
- 5 Predication
- 5.1 The auxiliary of being and its selection restrictions
- 5.2 The auxiliary of going and its selection restrictions
- 5.3 The auxiliary of continuation and its selection restrictions
- 5.4 The auxiliary of coming and its selection restrictions
- 5.5 Modal auxiliaries and their selection restrictions
- 5.6 Auxiliaries of body posture and aspect and their selection restrictions
- 5.7 Transitive verbs of predication
- 5.8 The auxiliary of doing used as a semantically empty finite auxiliary
- 5.9 Supplementive predication
- 6 The verbal paradigm, irregularity and suppletion
- 7 Verb Second and the word order in main and embedded clauses
- 8 Various aspects of clause structure
- Adjectives and adjective phrases (APs)
-
- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
Codas are part of the rhyme constituent of a syllable and follow the nucleus. Coda positions can be occupied by consonantalsegments or glides.
Dutch allows for coda consonants. The consonant /h/ cannot occur in codas since it needs to receive its place specification from the following vowel(Booij 1995:40; `parasitic on a next vowel'). In contrast, the velarnasal /ŋ/ can exclusively occur in codas, and more specifically only after B-class vowels as in ring /rɪŋ/ ring, eng /ɛŋ/ daunting or tango /tɑŋ.go/ [ˈtɑŋgo] or /tɑŋ.xo/ [ˈtɑŋxo] tango. Glides can occur in coda position but only if they follow A-class vowels; they cannot be part of coda clusters other than glide + coronal consonant(s) as in ooit /ojt/ sometime. For more information on restrictions on nucleus + coda sequences see co-occurrence restrictions in rhymes.
The maximum number of possible coda consonants depends on the preceding vowel and whether the syllable is word-medial or word-final. Word-medially, the number of coda consonants differs between zero, i.e. open syllable (see also hiatus), and two as in werkloos /ʋɛrk.los/ unemployed. Word-finally, the number of allowed coda consonants seems to be higher, differing again from zero to up to five consonants as in herfst /hɛrfst/ autumn, fall or promptst /prɔmptst/ [prɔmp(t)st] most prompt. Examples are given in (1-3):
Since B-class vowels may only occur in closed syllables, minimally one coda consonant is mandatory (see 2a). Word-medially, these coda consonants can be ambisyllabic (see 2b). A-class vowels and diphthongs may occur in open syllables; a coda consonant is therefore optional (see 1 and 3).
Besides singleton coda consonants (see above), Dutch also allows for coda consonant clusters. However, consonants cannot be combined randomly. According to the Sonority Sequencing Principle(Clements 1990), the sonority should steeply rise for onset + nucleus sequences and (mildly) decrease or not decrease at all in rhymes, i.e. nucleus + coda consonants.
As a consequence of the sonority hierarchy given above, the following bisegmental coda consonant clusters are possible: sonorant + sonorant coda clusters (see table 1), sonorant + obstruent coda clusters (see tables 2 and 3) - examples were taken from Booij (1995:40/41) - and obstruent + obstruent coda clusters (see examples in 4). Notice that in sonorant + sonorant coda clusters the liquid, i.e. lateral or rhotic consonant, precedes the nasal.
sequence | example |
/-lm/ | zalm /zɑlm/ salmon |
/-rm/ | arm /ɑrm/ arm |
/-rn/ | karn /kɑrn/ to churn |
/*-ln/ | cf. Köln (German) - Keulen (Dutch) Cologne |
/*-lŋ/ | - |
/*-rŋ/ | - |
/*-rl/ | cf. Karl/Carl (German) - Karel (Dutch) name |
More generally, possible coda consonant clusters seem to be `mirrors' of onset clusters(Booij 1981; mirror principle). However, the number of coda clusters is slightly larger than the number of permitted onset clusters. Whereas /-lm, -rm, -lt/ are possible coda clusters, the inversely ordered sequences /ml-, mr-, tl-/ are impossible onset clusters. The opposite holds for the two onset clusters /bl-, br-/; the mirrored coda clusters /-lb, -rb/ occur exclusively in loanwords such as stilb /stɪlb/ [stɪl(ə)p] old unit of luminance, sorb /sɔrb/ [sɔr(ə)p] sorb apple or blurb /blʏrb/ [blʏr(ə)p] blurb but are otherwise disallowed in Dutch.
sequence | example |
/-lf/ | elf /ɛlf/ [ɛl(ə)f] elf, fairy |
/-lv/ | elf /ɛlv/ [ɛl(ə)f] eleven (cf. elfde [ˈɛlv.də] eleventh |
/-ls/ | als /ɑls/ if, as |
/-lz/ | hals /hɑlz/ [hɑls] neck (cf. halzen [ˈhɑl.zən] neck (plural)) |
/-lx/ | mulch /mʏlx/ [mʏl(ə)x] mulch (cf. mulchte [ˈmʏlx.tə] mulched) |
/-lɣ/ | balg /bɑlɣ/ [bɑl(ə)x] bellows |
/-lp/ | hulp /hʏlp/ [hʏl(ə)p] help |
/*-lb/ | - |
/-lt/ | asfalt /ɑsfɑlt/ asphalt |
/-ld/ | held /hɛld/ [hɛlt] hero (cf. helden [ˈhɛl.dən] hero (plural)) |
/-lk/ | elk /ɛlk/ [ɛl(ə)k] every |
/-rf/ | smurf /smʏrf/ smurf (cf. smurfen [ˈsmʏr.fən] smurfs) |
/-rv/ | korf /kɔrv/ [kɔr(ə)f] basket (cf. korven [ˈkɔr.vən] basket (plural)) |
/-rs/ | mars /mɑrs/ march |
/-rz/ | vers /vɛrz/ [vɛrs] verse, poem (cf. verzen [ˈvɛr.zə(n)] verses |
/-rx/ | monarch /mo.nɑrx/ monarch, king |
/-rɣ/ | erg /ɛrɣ/ [ɛr(ə)x] very |
/-rp/ | harp /hɑrp/ [hɑr(ə)p] harp |
/*-rb/ | - |
/-rt/ | art /ɑrt/ art |
/-rd/ | hard /hɑrd/ [hɑrt] hard (cf. harder [ˈhɑr.dər] harder) |
/-rk/ | ark /ɑrk/ [ɑr(ə)k] ark |
Nasal + obstruent coda clusters (table 3) are subject to more restrictions. First, nasals cannot combine with fricatives within the same coda in Dutch (but compare heterosyllabic nasal + fricative clusters as in kamfer /kɑm.fər/ camphor). Second, the nasal and the succeeding obstruent must be homorganic. So, only nasal + homorganic stop coda clusters are possible. The (written) sequence -mb occurs only in the loanword aplomb /a.plɔm/ [aˈplɔm] self-assurance; the sequence /-ŋg/ does not occur. The non-homorganic sequence /-md/ as in hemd /hɛmd/ shirt or vreemd /vremd/ strange is not very frequent; for an account see section below.
sequence | example |
/*-mb/ | - |
/-mp/ | ramp /rɑmp/ disaster |
/-md/ | hemd /hɛmd/ [hɛmt] shirt (cf. hemden [ˈhɛm.dən] shirt (plural)) |
/-nd/ | mond /mɔnd/ [mɔnt] mouth (cf. monden [ˈmɔn.dən] mouth (plural)) |
/-nt/ | munt /mʏnt/ coin |
/*-ŋg/ | - |
/-ŋk/ | koninklijk /ko.nɪŋk.lək/ royal |
Lastly, Dutch also allows for obstruent + obstruent coda clusters in monomorphemic words. In all of these clusters, at least one of the two obstruents is a coronal (see also consonant cluster condition). With the exception of /-sC/ clusters (see also example 4), the coronal is usually found in final position. Table 4 provides some examples for possible obstruent + obstruent coda clusters:
sequence | example |
/-pt/ | intercept /ɪn.tər.sɛpt/ intercept |
/-ps/ | rups /rʏps/ caterpillar |
/-ts/ | muts /mʏts/ hat |
/-tʃ/ | kitsch /kitʃ/ kitsch, junk |
/-kt/ | pact /pɑkt/ pact |
/-ks/ | heks /hɛks/ witch |
/-ft/ | kaft /kɑft/ (book) cover |
/-fs/ | - |
/-sp/ | wesp /ʋɛsp/ wasp |
/-st/ | beest /best/ beast |
/-sk/ | kiosk /ki.ɔsk/ stall |
/-xt/ | macht /mɑxt/ power |
/-xs/ | - |
The phonological process of final devoicing is active in Dutch. This means that coda consonants which are underlyingly specified for the feature [voice] turn into their voiceless counterparts when occurring in coda position. This process results in seemingly homophonous word pairs such as elf /ɛlf/ [ɛlf] elf, fairy vs. elf /ɛlv/ [ɛlf] eleven (see also the discussion of incomplete neutralization). Evidence that there is indeed a voiced segment underlyingly present in coda position comes from related forms such as plural forms or past tense forms, in which the voiced segment shows up. Examples are given in tables 2 and 3 above.
So far we have assumed a syllable structure like in the following figure:
Post-nuclear consonants are assigned to the coda position of a syllable (see phonotactics at the word level for the syllable assignment of intervocalic consonant clusters and the maximum onset principle). It has been noted that Dutch allows extra-long sequences of up to five consonants word-finally (see Moulton 1956 for a similar observation in German, the so-called 'edge of constituent phenomena';Booij 1983), as in herfst /hɛrfst/ autumn, fall. Since those final consonants are always coronal obstruents, it has been proposed that these consonants do not belong to the coda but form a (syllable) appendix instead. Following this account, seemingly exceptional extra-long codas as in herfst or promptst [prɔmp(t)st] most prompt actually comprise two coda consonants (plus up to three appendix positions) in accordance with word-medial codas. All final coronals of `coda clusters' in the examples given in tables 2 and 3 above should thus be assigned to an appendix position.
An alternative account is presented in Van Oostendorp (1995,2000, see also references there). In addition to the appendix (called extra-prosodic consonants), it is suggested that a distinction should be made between the obligatory coda consonant following B-class vowels and the optional coda consonants following either A-class vowels or B-class vowel + obligatory-coda-consonant sequences. What these consonants have in common is that they do not need to be coronals. Van Oostendorp claims that these optional consonants do not actually belong to the coda / rhyme of the syllable but get assigned to a following degenerate syllable instead. These optional consonants are, therefore, called extra-syllabic consonants. Such an account allows, among other things, to unify the influence of syllable weight across word-positions for stress assignment.
The following figures illustrate the structures that are proposed for the words hulp /hʏlp/ [hʏl(ə)p] help, kaft /kɑft/ [kɑft] [*kɑfət] cover, maart /mart/ [mart] [*marət] March and herfst /hɛrfst/ [hɛr(ə)fst] autumn, fall (N^0 refers to the nuclear level, barred N refers to the syllable rhyme, double-barred N refers to the syllable level, Ft stands for foot; extra-prosodic consonants are directly linked to the higher-ranked prosodic word node which is not included in the figures):
So, according to this account the /t/ following a B-class vowel in kat /kɑt/ cat, although being coronal, is a genuine coda consonant whereas the /k/ in taak /tak/ task is an extra-syllabic consonant. This account receives additional support from phonetic data: consonant clusters consisting of a coda consonant + an extra-syllabic consonant are usually affected by schwa epenthesis in casual speech. This is illustrated by the words hulp /hʏlp/ [hʏl(ə)p] help and herfst /hɛrfst/ [hɛr(ə)fst] autumn, fall in the following figure (more examples can be found in table 2 above). Notice that schwa insertion is not possible in (coda or extra-syllabic) consonant + appendix / extra-prosodic consonant clusters. So, there is no optional schwa in words such as kaft /kɑft/ [kɑft] [*kɑfət] cover, paard /pard/ [part] [*parət] horse or herfst /hɛrfst/ [hɛr(ə)fst] [*hɛrfəst] autumn, fall. See Van Oostendorp (1995,2000) for more details, e.g. why [ˈhʏləp] is preferred to [*ˈhʏl.pə] (i.e. the prohibition of epenthetic schwa at word edges), and (grammatical) implementation.
As mentioned above, coda consonant clusters follow the Sonority Sequencing Principle. However, exceptional sequences can be found that seem to escape this general principle. Notice that all of these exceptions involve s + stop sequences, which behaved differently in onset clusters as well. According to Booij (1995:41), word-final /-st/-sequences should be assigned to the appendix position(s). The remaining (word-medial) sequences /-sp, -st, -sk/ (examples are given in 4) do pose a problem for the traditional coda consonant cluster account, however, and should be accepted as violations of the Sonority Sequencing Principle.
Alternatively, following Van Oostendorp's (1995,2000) account, the word-final sequences /-sp, -sk, -st/ after B-class vowels are not problematic since the /s/ occupies the obligatory coda position and the final /p/ and /k/ get assigned to an extra-syllabic position (i.e. onset of a degenerate syllable) in analogy to the example hulp in the figure above and the final /t/ gets assigned to an extra-prosodic position. Word-medial /-stC-/ clusters might be analysed in a similar way with the /s/ belonging to a coda position and the coronal /t/ being extra-prosodic (word-internally).
Remaining problematic cases are words such as Weesp /ʋesp/ city name or twaalf /tʋalf/ twelve in which a non-coronal word-final consonant cluster follows an A-class vowel.
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