- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- Introduction to Frisian
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans Consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological Processes
- Phonotactics
- Segment inventory
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Introduction to Noun Phrases
- Introduction to Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution
- Predication
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Introduction to Verb Phrases
- Phonology
The following is an example of the PPI-A construction:
Soe hy dat dien kinnen ha? |
would he that done could.PfP have |
Could he have done that? |
PPI is an abbreviation of the Latin phrase Participium pro Infinitivo (PPI). The term is used to refer to a construction in which two perfect participles show up, where just one participle and an infinitive are expected. In the A-construction, the auxiliary of the perfect selects the perfect participle realised as the modal auxiliary.
The PPI-A construction displays the presence of two participles while there is only one instance of hahave. Furthermore, the participle diendone is not adjacent to hahave, since the participle kinnencould intervenes. Normally the participle is adjacent to the auxiliary of the perfect, if we abstract away from the disruptive effect of Verb-Second. Hence we conclude that the participle that is not adjacent to hahave is the parasitic participle, whereas the adjacent participle is the true participle.
The PPI-A construction is reminiscent of the A-construction. Consider a normal A-construction (2a), followed by a PPI-A construction (2b):
a. | Hie hy dat dwaan kinnen? | ||||||||||||||
had he that do could.PfP | |||||||||||||||
Could he have done that? |
b. | Soe hy dat dien kinnen ha? | ||||||||||||||
would he that done could.PfP have | |||||||||||||||
Could he have done that? |
Impressionistically, it seems that the irrealis perfect verb of the ordinary A-construction hiehad has been broken into two elements: the irrealis verb soeshould and the perfect infinitive hawwe have.
Unlike the PPI-B construction, the PPI-A construction is not restricted to main clauses, but can also be found in embedded clauses. An example is given in (3):
Omdat er dat net dien kinnen ha soe |
would he that not done could.PfP have should |
Because he could not have done that |
Of course, it is also grammatical to replace the parasitic participle by an infinitive:
Omdat er dat net dwaan kinnen ha soe |
would he that not do.OI could.PfP have should |
Because he could not have done that |
The real participle cannot be replaced by an infinitive:
*Omdat er dat net dien kinne ha soe |
would he that not done could.OI have should |
Because he could not have done that |
It might also be questioned whether the word order in the verbal cluster reflects the hierarchical selection relation between the verbs. That is, it might be questioned whether the verb cluster is consequently head-final. It can be shown that the cluster is consistently head-final by applying an idiom test. The idiom útstean kinnecan stand does not allow any other verb to intervene, not even the auxiliary of the perfect, as shown in (6):
a. | Nimmen hie it útstean kinnen | ||||||||||||||
nobody had it stand could.PfP | |||||||||||||||
Nobody could have stood it |
b. | *Nimmen koe it dus útstien ha | ||||||||||||||
nobody could it so stood have | |||||||||||||||
So, nobody could have stood it |
So, the idiom cannot be found in the logical B-construction, as shown above, which is still current in Modern Frisian (see a different B-construction: the logical B-construction). The ungrammaticality is due to the strict character of this idiom. If we replace the idiomatic verb by another verb, the sentence is fine:
Nimmen koe it dus ferneard ha |
nobody could it so stood have |
So, nobody could have stood it |
The idiom will help us to determine the structure of the verb cluster. If the linear order reflects the hierarchical order, then the idiom will be able to occur in the PPI-A construction, because the auxiliary of the perfect does not structurally intervene in the idiomatic cluster. This is in fact the case, as the following sentence makes clear:
Soe hy dat útstien kinnen ha? |
would he that stood could.PfP have |
Could he have stood that? |
The sentence in (8) is grammatical because the auxiliary of the perfect does not structurally intervene in the idiom. Hence the order reflects the underlying hierarchical relation, whereas the morphological ending may be misleading, as happens to be the case with the parasitic participles.
- Dutch
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- Intonation
[82%] Dutch > Phonology > Accent & intonation
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[79%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonotactics > Syllable level > Onsets > Complex onsets
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[78%] Dutch > Phonology > Accent & intonation
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[78%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonotactics
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[83%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Final devoicing
- Phonological evidence for cliticization
[82%] Frisian > Phonology > Clitics
- Orthography
[82%] Frisian > Phonology > Orthography of Frisian
- The syllabic affiliation of prevocalic glides
[81%] Frisian > Phonology > Segment inventory > Consonants > Glides
- Progressive Voice Assimilation: the past tense of the weak verbs of the first conjugation class
[81%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Assimilation
- The phonotactics of Afrikaans
[80%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonotactics
- Homorganic glide insertion
[77%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes
- Nasalization
[77%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Vowel related processes
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[75%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonotactics > Onset
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- Dutch
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- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
[83%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Compounding
- Case - the partitive construction
[81%] Dutch > Morphology > Inflection > Nouns > Case
- -tal
[79%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Nouns > Nominal suffixes
- Verbal inflection
[79%] Dutch > Morphology > Inflection
- Possessive pronouns
[78%] Dutch > Morphology > Inflection > Pronouns
- Strong and other irregular verbs
[86%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Verbs
- General categories
[85%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Verbs
- Degree
[85%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Adjectives
- Weak verbs
[84%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Verbs
- -e
[83%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Onomastic suffixes > Numeral as base
- Prefixation
[74%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
[73%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Circumfixation
[70%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Affixation
[69%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation
- Meaning of affixes
[68%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- 6.4.2. Zijn + bare infinitive (absentive construction)
[88%] Dutch > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs > 6.4. Non-main verbs selecting a bare infinitive
- 3.2.1.1. General properties of passives
[88%] Dutch > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations > 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument > 3.2.1. Passivization
- 2.2.3. Resultative constructions
[88%] Dutch > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure > 2.2. Complementives (secondary predicates)
- 6.2.1. Perfect auxiliaries
[87%] Dutch > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs > 6.2. Non-main verbs selecting a participle
- 1.5.4.2. The uses of the perfect tenses
[87%] Dutch > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > 1 Characterization and classification > 1.5. Tense, epistemic modality and aspect > 1.5.4. The Dutch verbal tense system
- The PPI-B construction
[97%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Expression of irrealis > The verb sille 'shall' > Participio-pro-Infinitivo
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[87%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Expression of irrealis
- The adverb of degree followed by an adjective and negation
[86%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Negation
- Complete infinitival clause
[86%] Frisian > Syntax > Adjective Phrases > Modification and degree quantification > High degree specification > With infinitival clauses
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[84%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Adjective Phrases > Predication
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[83%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Adjective Phrases > Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree > Comparative > Lower degree comparative
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[82%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Characterization and classification > Introduction
- Finite interrogative complement clauses: syntactic distribution
[82%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Complement clauses > Finite interrogative complement clauses
