
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
Frisian has only one indefinite article, i.e. in a, pronounced as /ən/. It is not inflected for number, gender or case. If alone, i.e. in cases of nominal ellipsis, it receives the form ien. The use of the indefinite article is restricted to singular count nouns, for instance in fisk a fish. However, in certain cases we also find that it is combined with other categories, for instance with mass nouns, which then acquire a count noun interpretation. In exclamative sentences we even see in in combination with plural nouns, notably expressing a high degree. A typical meaning is also 'a certain', which emerges if the indefinite article stands before proper nouns and numerals.
Frisian has only one form for the indefinite article, viz. in /ən/. This implies that there is no gender distinction, and that the article is not inflected for case. The article in is only used in combination with singular nouns. Indefiniteness of plurals is marked by the lack of an article or, formulated in different terms, that there is a null article. Hence, the singular indefinite Noun Phrase (NP) in apel an apple has apel-s apple-PL apples as its plural cognate.
Not only does the indefinite pronoun only occur in combination with singular nouns, its selection is even more restricted in that only count nouns are qualified. This restriction is probably a semantic one; the indefinite article, which derives from the numeral ien one historically, picks out one member from a set denoted by the noun. Hence, we have in apel an apple, but not *in wetter a water, since wetter is not a count noun. In addition, the indefinite article does not combine with proper nouns, viz. *in Jan a John. However, in certain special cases these restrictions can be violated, see the section on use below.
The phonological form of the indefinite article is /ən/. This combination of schwa plus dental nasal consonant is open to several phonetic adjustments. The nasal can build a syllable on its own, after deletion of schwa; see syllabic sonorant consonants (read more about subsequent processes). Or the nasal deletes and subsequently the schwa becomes nasalized; a further phonological description may be found in the underlying representation of nasalized vowels: simplex forms. Furthermore, the nasal may become subject to place assimilation.
In cases of nominal ellipsis, the form in turns to ien if the indefinite article is immediately in front of the elided noun. Compare:
a. | in man út Amsterdam en in man út Rotterdam | ||||||||||||||
a man from Amsterdam and a man from Rotterdam | |||||||||||||||
a man from Amsterdam and a man from Rotterdam |
b. | *in man út Amsterdam en in út Rotterdam |
a man from Amsterdam and a ___ from Rotterdam |
c. | in man út Amsterdam en ien út Rotterdam | ||||||||||||||
a man from Amsterdam and one ___ from Rotterdam | |||||||||||||||
a man from Amsterdam and one from Rotterdam |
Note that it is the form of the numeral ien one that shows up here.
In Old Frisian, the indefinite article was still inflected for case and gender. The relevant paradigm can be found in Steller (1928:49) or Bremmer (2009:67).
The various uses of the indefinite article will be strictly touched upon in this section. More can be found in the syntactic part of the Taalportaal: function of the indefinite article and the indefinite article before a plural noun in constructions expressing a high degree.
The main function of indefinite NPs is to introduce new information into the discourse domain. Compare:
Der rûn in stikelbaarch yn 'e tún |
There was a hedgehog walking in the garden |
In certain (intentional) contexts indefinite NPs are ambiguous between a specific or a non-specific reading. In a sentence like
Hy woe in reade trui keapje |
He wanted to buy a read sweater |
the NP in reade trui can refer to a particular read sweater (specific reading) or any read sweater (non-specific).
Indefinite NPs may also display a generic reading:
In knyn hat lange earen |
A rabbit has long ears |
The same generic reading can be found in indefinite plurals:
Kninen ha lange earen |
Rabbits have long ears |
In addition, the indefinite article may occur in unexpected contexts, with a deviating reading as a result. A case in point is the use with a mass noun. This may be allowed, but then the mass noun gets an interpretation as if it were a count noun. In the examples below, we get a "sort" interpretation:
a. | in lekkere wyn | a good wine |
b. | in fine snie | a fine snow |
c. | in glûpende kjeld | a bitter cold |
d. | in ûnmooglike leafde | an impossible love |
The indefinite article can also be used if the noun refers to a specific quantity of a mass:
a. | Jou my mar in kofje | Give me a (cup of) coffee, please |
b. | Ik nim in petat mei kurry | I'll have chips with curry |
In exclamative sentences the indefinite article in can have an expressively qualifying function:
Ik ha hjoed in aap sjoen! |
I have seen a (typical) ape today! |
In this way, the indefinite article may also occur in combination with mass nouns and plural nouns. In such exclamative sentences it can be both expressively qualifying and expressively quantifying. Compare:
a. | In bier dat ik hjoed dronken ha! | ||||||||||||||
I have drunk special beer today! / I have drunk lots of beer today |
b. | Hy hat in boek-en! | ||||||||||||||
hy has a book-PL | |||||||||||||||
He has special books! / He has lots of books! |
Normally, the indefinite article is not combined with a proper name. It is allowed, however, to express the meaning a certain, someone who bears the name X:
Op dy pleats, dêr wennet in Dykstra |
on that farm, there lives a Dykstra |
There lives a certain Dykstra on that farm |
Something comparable occurs when the indefinite article is placed before a numeral. It then gets a modifying (approximative) function:
in hûndert besikers |
a hundert visitors |
some hundred visitors |
This function of in appears to be zero if the quantifying expression has been modified approximatively in another way:
a. | in lyts(e) tweintich jier | about twenty years |
b. | in goed(e) fjirtich beammen | about forty trees |
c. | in fjouwer, fiif segaren | some four or five cigars |
These phrases do not get another meaning if in is omitted, as in lyts tweintich jier etcetera.
We also see the meaning of 'a certain' in a few idiomatic expressions:
a. | op in dei | ||||||||||||||
at a day | |||||||||||||||
one day |
b. | op in stuit | ||||||||||||||
at a moment | |||||||||||||||
at a certain moment |
c. | ta in hichte | ||||||||||||||
to a height | |||||||||||||||
to a certain extent |
d. | Dat giet oant in tiid ta | ||||||||||||||
that goes until a time to | |||||||||||||||
That won't last |
We may find the same interpretation with indefinite plurals:
It iis is op plakken net fertroud |
In certain places the ice is not yet thick enough |
The indefinite article also figures in a typical construction with two temporal expressions. The article belongs to the one which has the longest duration inherently. This NP is preceded by a bare temporal expression. The latter functions as a point in time to which the longer time span is added:
a. | hjoed in wike | today a week | a week from now |
b. | moarn in wike | tomorrow a week | a week from tomorrow |
c. | augustus in jier | august a year | a year from August |
Dutch needs an extra preposition over over in its comparable construction, i.e. vandaag over een week today over a week a week from now. It should be noted that the construction cannot only refer to the future, but also to the past. See the quote from the Frisian writer Reinder Brolsma below:
't Wier, sa't my foarstiet, forline hjerst in jier do't wy in loopke nei stêd ta dienen |
it was, as it my for-stands, last autumn a year when we a trip to town to made |
It was, as far as I remember, a year from last autumn that we made a trip to town |
In referring to the past, Dutch uses the preposition voor for, so Frisian juster in wike yesterday a week ago is gisteren voor een week in Dutch.
Finally, it should be noted that predicative nouns denoting a profession, belief or ideology are not preceded by the indefinite article, in contrast with the English use:
a. | Us heit is leadjitter | My dad is a plumber |
b. | Tony wie minnist | Tony was a mennonite |
c. | Us Jan is anargist | My brother Jan is an anarchist |
d. | Afke wie mem fan tsien bern | Afke was a mother of ten |
This also holds for predicative nouns following the conjunction as as:
a. | As jongfeint wie der gjin wylder as hy | ||||||||||||||
As a young man there was no one wilder than he |
b. | Men kin der as monteur in slompe jild fertsjinje | ||||||||||||||
One can make a lot of money there as a mechanic |
This topic is greatly indebted to an unfinished grammar of Frisian, written in English by Jarich Hoekstra. For the meaning 'a certain', see Hoekstra (1990). On the use before numerals, see Hoekstra (2005). For a general overview with a wealth of data, see also the lemma in I in Veen (1984-2011).
- Bremmer, Rolf H. Jr2009An Introduction to Old Frisian. History, Grammar, Reader, GlossaryAmsterdam/PhiladelphiaJohn Benjamins Publishing Company
- Hoekstra, Eric2005In trije ameublemintenFriesch Dagblad29-10Taalgenoat en taalgeniet 66
- Hoekstra, Jarich1990Ta in hichteFriesch Dagblad24-02Taalsnipels 137
- Steller, Walther1928Abriss der Altfriesischen Grammatik. Mit Berücksichtigung der westgermanischen Dialecten des Altenglischen, Altsächsischen und AlthochdeutschenHalleMax Niemeyer Verlag
- Veen, Klaas F. van der et al1984-2011Wurdboek fan de Fryske taal - Woordenboek der Friese taalFryske Akademy
