
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
During initial standardisation, Afrikaans lost its inherited Dutch human impersonal pronoun men human. In its place, a new impersonal pronoun developed from the current noun for human, namely ('n) mens (a) human. In its use as pronoun, it can occur with the indefinite article (1a) or without it (1b). The otherwise second person singular pronoun jy/jou you.SG can be used in similar ways (1c).
a. | Dit is 'n teks wat 'n mens inkatrol. | ||||||||||||||
it be.PRS a text that.REL a human in.reel | |||||||||||||||
It is a text that reels you in. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
b. | Hoe kan mens die diens kry? | ||||||||||||||
how can.AUX.MOD human the service get | |||||||||||||||
How can one get the service? | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
c. | Jy kan komplikasies kry van seisoenale griep – en baie mense gaan inderdaad jaarliks daaraan dood. | ||||||||||||||
you.SG can.AUX.MOD complications get from seasonal flu and many people go indeed yearly PN.on dead | |||||||||||||||
You can develop complications from seasonal flu – and many people actually die from it every year. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
Another pronoun that can be used in impersonal contexts is the otherwise third person plural hulle they/them as in (2).
U weet dat hulle sê kennis is mag. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
you.HON know that.COMP they say knowledge be.PRS power | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
You know they say that knowledge is power. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
Human impersonal pronouns, or HIPs, are pronominal expressions of impersonalisation. There are different types of impersonal contexts and uses where HIPs are employed. The first type is universal contexts, where the speaker makes a general statement that can, in principle, apply to everyone relevant to the context and could potentially include the speaker as well (Van Olmen & Breed 2018: 2). In (3a), the context refers to people in London who have a bond with South Africa. In this example, the more grammaticalised variant of ('n) mens (a) human is used, namely without the indefinite article (a remnant from the origin of the pronoun as a NP). In (3b), the variant with the article is used. This impersonal pronoun is a frequent choice for universal contexts. The other pronoun used as a HIP in universal contexts is the otherwise second person singular jy/jou you.SG, as illustrated in (3c). In universal contexts that specifically excludes the speaker, the otherwise third person plural hulle they/them is used (3d).
a. | Maar hier in London gryp mens na enige iets wat net ruik na Suid-Afrikaans. | ||||||||||||||
but here in London grasp people to any something that.REL just smell to South-African | |||||||||||||||
But here in London you grasp at anything that even smells South African. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
b. | Dit maak 'n mens bekommerd! | ||||||||||||||
it make a human worried | |||||||||||||||
It makes one worried! | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
c. | Jy het die reg om inligting te ontvang en ingelig te word oor alle relevante dienste wat diensverskaffers aan jou kan lewer. | ||||||||||||||
you.SG have.PRS the right for.COMP information PTCL.INF receive.INF and inform.PASS PTCL.INF be.AUX.PASS.PRS about all relevant services that.REL serviceproviders to you.SG can.AUX.MOD supply | |||||||||||||||
You have the right to receive information and be informed about all relevant services that service providers can provide you with. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
d. | In Europa gee hulle nie om hoe rugby gespeel word nie. | ||||||||||||||
in Europe give they not PREP.PTCL how rugby play.PASS be.AUX.PASS.PST PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||
In Europe they do not really care how rugby is played. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
The HIP('n) mens (a) human is typically used in the subject position of the sentence, and for reflexives (4a) and possessive uses (4b), jou or when applicable jouself yourself (4c) are used. Sometimes, ('n) mens is found in an object use or PP (4d). In a complex clause, rather than repeating ('n) mens as a subject, typically jy you.SG is used, as can be seen in (4c) and (4d). However, instances of mensself also occur (4e), if infrequently in written language.
a. | Maar dit voel of mens jou teen 'n muur vas loop hier. | ||||||||||||||
but it feel if human you.SG against a wall against walk here | |||||||||||||||
But it feels like you hit a wall here. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
b. | Maar hoe verklaar 'n mens jou sesde sintuig of intuïsie? | ||||||||||||||
but how explain a human your.SG sixth sense or intuition | |||||||||||||||
But how do you explain your sixth sense or intuition? | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
c. | In enige krisissituasie vra 'n mens jouself af watter bydrae jy tot die krisis gelewer het. | ||||||||||||||
in any crisis.situation ask a human yourself.SG off what contribution you.SG to the crisis make.PST have.AUX | |||||||||||||||
In any crisis situation, one asks oneself what you contributed to the crisis. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
d. | Maar daar ís die seldsame kere wanneer 'n wonderbaarlike wending of beeld vanuit die niet op 'n mens afpyl, en jy dink: Hemel, waar kom dít nou vandaan? | ||||||||||||||
but there be.PRS the rare times when a wonderful turn or image from the nothingness on a human to.run and you.SG think heaven where come it now from | |||||||||||||||
But there are the rare cases when a wonderful turn of events or image heads your way from nowhere, and you think: Good heavens, where is this coming from? | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
e. | Dalk lag mens die heel hardste vir mensself. | ||||||||||||||
maybe laugh human the most hardest for human.self | |||||||||||||||
Maybe one laughs the hardest at oneself. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
The other type of impersonal context that employs HIPs is existential contexts. Existential contexts are used when a speaker wants to make a statement about a particular person or group, but they do not want to specifically identify or cannot identify the person or group (Van Olmen & Breed 2018: 8). The only HIP used in these existential contexts is hulle they/them. One particular use is with a speech act verb (5a), but there are other contexts as well. In (5b) is the the corporate or definite use, where the person or group can be deduced from the predicate to some extent. Other contexts are illustrated in (5c-e).
a. | Maar soos hulle sê: "Mens stry seker nie oor mooi en lekker nie." | ||||||||||||||
but as they say human argue probably not about beautiful and nice PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||
But as they say: "You don't argue about beaty and good things." | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
b. | Hy sê toe, nee, dit lyk vir hom, hulle neem nou die skaap- en bokgeblêr op band en dan verkoop hulle dit vir rock en rollmusiek. | ||||||||||||||
he say then no it look for him they take now the sheep and goat.bleating on tape and then sell they it for rock and roll.music | |||||||||||||||
He then said, no, it looks to him like they record the sheep and goat bleating on tape and then they sell it as rock and roll music. | |||||||||||||||
PCSA |
c. | Hulle het jou rekenaar gevat. | ||||||||||||||
they have.AUX your.SG computer take.PST | |||||||||||||||
They took your computer. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
d. | Raaltjie sê dat sy na die radio sal luister as hulle dit uitsaai. | ||||||||||||||
Raaltjie say that.COMP she to the radio will.AUX.MOD listen if they it broadcast | |||||||||||||||
Raaltjie says that she will listen to the radio when they broadcast it. | |||||||||||||||
HCSA |
e. | Hulle het springmielies hierbinne gemaak. | ||||||||||||||
they have.AUX popcorn here.in make.PST | |||||||||||||||
They made popcorn in here. | |||||||||||||||
Van Olmen & Breed (2018: 13) |
- Van Olmen, D. & Breed, A2018Human impersonal pronouns in Afrikaans: a double questionnaire-based study .Language Sciences691-29,
- Van Olmen, D. & Breed, A2018Human impersonal pronouns in Afrikaans: a double questionnaire-based study .Language Sciences691-29,
