- Dutch
- Frisian
- Saterfrisian
- Afrikaans
-
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
-
- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Compositions
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
-
- General
- Morphology
- Morphology
- 1 Word formation
- 1.1 Compounding
- 1.1.1 Compounds and their heads
- 1.1.2 Special types of compounds
- 1.1.2.1 Affixoids
- 1.1.2.2 Coordinative compounds
- 1.1.2.3 Synthetic compounds and complex pseudo-participles
- 1.1.2.4 Reduplicative compounds
- 1.1.2.5 Phrase-based compounds
- 1.1.2.6 Elative compounds
- 1.1.2.7 Exocentric compounds
- 1.1.2.8 Linking elements
- 1.1.2.9 Separable Complex Verbs and Particle Verbs
- 1.1.2.10 Noun Incorporation Verbs
- 1.1.2.11 Gapping
- 1.2 Derivation
- 1.3 Minor patterns of word formation
- 1.1 Compounding
- 2 Inflection
- 1 Word formation
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Adjectives and adjective phrases (APs)
- 0 Introduction to the AP
- 1 Characteristics and classification of APs
- 2 Complementation of APs
- 3 Modification and degree quantification of APs
- 4 Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative
- 5 Attribution of APs
- 6 Predication of APs
- 7 The partitive adjective construction
- 8 Adverbial use of APs
- 9 Participles and infinitives as APs
- Nouns and Noun Phrases (NPs)
- 0 Introduction to the NP
- 1 Characteristics and Classification of NPs
- 2 Complementation of NPs
- 3 Modification of NPs
- 3.1 Modification of NP by Determiners and APs
- 3.2 Modification of NP by PP
- 3.3 Modification of NP by adverbial clauses
- 3.4 Modification of NP by possessors
- 3.5 Modification of NP by relative clauses
- 3.6 Modification of NP in a cleft construction
- 3.7 Free relative clauses and selected interrogative clauses
- 4 Partitive noun constructions and constructions related to them
- 4.1 The referential partitive construction
- 4.2 The partitive construction of abstract quantity
- 4.3 The numerical partitive construction
- 4.4 The partitive interrogative construction
- 4.5 Adjectival, nominal and nominalised partitive quantifiers
- 4.6 Kind partitives
- 4.7 Partitive predication with a preposition
- 4.8 Bare nominal attribution
- 5 Articles and names
- 6 Pronouns
- 7 Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- 8 Interrogative pronouns
- 9 R-pronouns and the indefinite expletive
- 10 Syntactic functions of Noun Phrases
- Adpositions and Adpositional Phrases (PPs)
- 0 Introduction to the PP
- 1 Characteristics and classification of PPs
- 2 Complementation of PPs
- 3 Modification of PPs
- 4 Bare (intransitive) adpositions
- 5 Predication of PPs
- 6 Form and distribution of adpositions with respect to staticity and construction type
- 7 Adpositional complements and adverbials
- Verbs and Verb Phrases (VPs)
- 0 Introduction to the VP in Saterland Frisian
- 1 Characteristics and classification of verbs
- 2 Unergative and unaccusative subjects and the auxiliary of the perfect
- 3 Evidentiality in relation to perception and epistemicity
- 4 Types of to-infinitival constituents
- 5 Predication
- 5.1 The auxiliary of being and its selection restrictions
- 5.2 The auxiliary of going and its selection restrictions
- 5.3 The auxiliary of continuation and its selection restrictions
- 5.4 The auxiliary of coming and its selection restrictions
- 5.5 Modal auxiliaries and their selection restrictions
- 5.6 Auxiliaries of body posture and aspect and their selection restrictions
- 5.7 Transitive verbs of predication
- 5.8 The auxiliary of doing used as a semantically empty finite auxiliary
- 5.9 Supplementive predication
- 6 The verbal paradigm, irregularity and suppletion
- 7 Verb Second and the word order in main and embedded clauses
- 8 Various aspects of clause structure
- Adjectives and adjective phrases (APs)
-
- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
Dutch allows for complex onsetconsonant clusters consisting of two consonants.
Dutch allows for complex onset consonant clusters consisting of two consonants. Figure 1 displays all attested combinations of CC-clusters that can be found in Dutch. Vertically, all segments are given that are possible as the first element of a CC-cluster; horizontally, all segments are given that are possible as the second element of a CC-cluster. The plus signs refer to clusters that are frequent; the plus signs in parentheses refer to clusters that occur only marginally in Dutch. These clusters are typically found in loanwords. No sign means that this sequence is not allowed in Dutch at all.
Disregarding the marginal clusters occurring in loanwords (see figure 2), it becomes apparent that onset consonant clusters of 'native' Dutch words usually consist of an obstruent followed by a sonorant (see right upper part of figure 2). The sonorant is usually either a liquid /r, l/ or the labio-dentalapproximant /ʋ/. Sequences violating the OCP (Obligatory Contour Principle) with respect to place of articulation are prohibited (see shaded cells in figure 2). The occurrence of the coronalnasal /n/ as the second part of an onset cluster is quite restricted; it only follows velars and, in only a tiny set of examples, the labio-dental fricative /f/. Two striking exceptions can be noticed. First, the labio-dental approximant /ʋ/ is the only sonorant that occurs frequently in the first position of a consonant cluster. It can only precede the rhotic consonant /r/. Second, the sibilant /s/ is the only obstruent that frequently co-occurs with other obstruents and that disobeys OCP restrictions.
Table 1 presents examples of each possible CC-cluster that can be found in Dutch. Infrequent clusters that can only be found in loanwords are marked as such.
| C1 | segment sequence | example |
| /p/ | /pl-/ | plug /plʏɣ/ plug |
| /pr-/ | prijs /prɛis/ price | |
| in loanwords: | ||
| /pj-/ | piu /pju/ more, plus | |
| /pn-/ | pneumonie /pnø.mo.ni/ [pnø.mo.ˈni] pneumonia | |
| /pf-/ | Pfeiffer / Pfeifer /pfɛi.fər/ [ˈpfɛi.fər] (surname, probably of German origin) | |
| /ps-/ | psalm /psɑlm/ psalm | |
| /pt-/ | Ptolemeus /pto.lə.me.ʏs/ (ancient figure) | |
| /pw-/ | pointe /pwɛ̃t/ punch line | |
| /b/ | /bl-/ | bloem /blum/ flower |
| /br-/ | broek /bruk/ trousers | |
| /t/ | /tʋ-/ | twee /tʋe/ two |
| /tr-/ | troep /trup/ herd, rubbish | |
| in loanwords: | ||
| /ts-/ | tsaar /tsar/ czar | |
| /tʃ-/ | chip /tʃɪp/ chip | |
| /tw-/ | etui /eɪtwi/ etui | |
| /d/ | /dʋ-/ | dwars /dʋɑrs/ contrary |
| /dr-/ | droom /drom/ dream | |
| /k/ | /kʋ-/ | kwal /kʋɑl/ jelly fish |
| /kl-/ | klok /klɔk/ watch | |
| /kr-/ | krul /krʏl/ curl | |
| /kn-/ | kni /kni/ knee | |
| in loanwords: | ||
| /kj-/ | barbecue /bɑr.bə.kju/ BBQ | |
| /ks-/ | xylofoon /ksy.lo.fon/ [ksy.lo.ˈfon] xylophone | |
| /g/ | in loanwords: | |
| /gʋ-/ | pinguin /pɪŋ.gʋɪn/ [ˈpɪŋ.gʋɪn] penguin | |
| /gl-/ | neglige /nɛ.glɪ.ʒeɪ/ [ˌnɛ.glɪ.ˈʒeɪ] neglige | |
| /gr-/ | grill /grɪl/ grill | |
| /f/ | /fl-/ | fluit /flœyt/ flute |
| /fr-/ | framboos /frɑm.bos/ [frɑm.ˈbos] raspberry | |
| /fn-/ | fnuiken /fnœy.kən/ [ˈfnœy.kən] to weaken | |
| in loanwords: | ||
| /fj-/ | fjord /fjɔrd/ fjord | |
| /v/ | /vl-/ | vlag /vlɑɣ/ flag |
| /vr-/ | vraag /vrax/ question | |
| in loanwords: | ||
| /vj-/ | vieux /vjø/ old name for 'Dutch cognac' | |
| /vw-/ | voile /vwal/ veil | |
| /s/ | /sl-/ | sla /sla/ lettuce |
| /sm-/ | smaak /smak/ taste | |
| /sn-/ | snaar /snar/ string | |
| /sf-/ | sfeer /sfer/ atmosphere, mood | |
| /sx-/ | schoen /sxun/ shoe | |
| /sp-/ | spook /spok/ ghost | |
| /st-/ | stoel /stul/ chair | |
| /sk-/ | ski /ski/ ski | |
| in loanwords: | ||
| /sʋ-/ | suite /sʋit/ suite | |
| /sr-/ | Sri Lanka /srilɑŋka/ Sri Lanka | |
| /z/ | /zʋ-/ | zwart /zʋɑrt/ black |
| /ʃ/ | in loanwords: | |
| /ʃʋ-/ | sjwa /ʃʋa/ ə, schwa | |
| /ʃl-/ | schlemiel /ʃlemil/ shlemiel | |
| /ʃm-/ | schmink /ʃmiŋk/ make-up (colloq.) | |
| /ʃn-/ | schnabbel /ʃnɑbəl/ gig | |
| /x/ | /xl-/ | glas /xlɑs/ glass |
| /xr-/ | groen /xrun/ green | |
| /xn-/ | gnoe /xnu/ gnu | |
| /m/ | in loanwords: | |
| /mw-/ | moiré /mwɑr/ moiré pattern | |
| /n/ | in loanwords: | |
| /nw-/ | nuit /nwi/ night | |
| /l/ | in loanwords: | |
| /lj-/ | milieu /miljø/ [miˈljø] environment | |
| /r/ | in loanwords: | |
| /rw-/ | bavarois /ba.va.rwa/ bavarois | |
| /ʋ/ | /ʋr-/ | wraak /ʋrak/ revenge |
As can be seen in figures 1 and 2 and table 1 above, /h/ cannot form part of any cluster in Dutch, i.e. it only occurs as a singleton in syllable onsets. According to Booij (1995:36) this is due to the /h/-onset constraint, which says that "[a] branching onset may not dominate [+aspirated]".
The palatalglide /j/ can only occur as a singleton in syllable onsets or as the second member of a consonant cluster in Dutch.
In onset consonant clusters of two consonants the following combinations are theoretically possible:
- sonorant + obstruent
- sonorant + sonorant
- obstruent + obstruent
- obstruent + sonorant.
As can be seen in figures 1 and 2 above, the first combination is strictly ruled out in Dutch as it does not comply with the generally preferred increase in sonority (or, equivalently, the gradual decrease of consonantal strength/complexity) in syllable onsets.
The second combination, sonorant + sonorant, is very restricted in Dutch. Apart from the sequence /ʋr/, all other sequences of this type are highly marginal and can only be found in loanwords. The sequence /ʋr/, however, is frequent and occurs in words like wrak /ʋrɑk/ wreck, wraak /ʋrak/ revenge, wroeten /ʋrutən/ to rummage or wringen /ʋrɪŋən/ to wring. Trommelen (1984:105) claims that in word-initial position this sequence is realized as [vr] with a voiced labio-dental fricative and therefore behaves in the same way as other word-initial obstruent + sonorant clusters.
The third combination, obstruent + obstruent, is a rather exceptional type due to the fact that in these consonant clusters the sonority does not increase between the two elements of the syllable onset. These clusters can be separated into two types: /s/ + obstruent clusters and obstruent + obstruent clusters in which the first element is not an /s/. Clusters of the latter type, i.e. /pt-/, /pf-/, /ps-/, /ts-/, /tʃ-/ and /ks-/, are very infrequent and are solely found in a small set of loanwords. Generally, the obstruents do not need to agree in continuancy, whereas they must agree in voicing. In the description given here, these obstruent + obstruent sequences have been analysed as consonant clusters, i.e. consonant sequences occupying two syllabic positions. Alternatively, these sequences could be analysed as affricates. However, this analysis has been rejected here due to the fact that none of these obstruent + obstruent sequences can form part of even more complex consonant clusters like in Pflaume /p͜flau.mə/ plum (German cognate of Dutch pruim /prœʏm/).
The second type of obstruent + obstruent clusters, i.e. word-initial /s/ + obstruent clusters, occurs very frequently in Dutch. These clusters behave atypically for a number of reasons. First, as can be seen in the table above, it is only the segment /s/ that can cluster freely with all other (voiceless) obstruents (and almost all sonorants). Second, clusters such as /st-/, /sn-/ or /sl-/ in words like stom /stɔm/ dumb, stupid, sneu /snø/ pitiful or slim /slɪm/ smart illustrate that OCP restrictions regarding place of articulation can be violated by sC(C) - clusters. Third, in word-initial consonant clusters of three consonants the first position can exclusively be occupied by /s/ (see also Onset: sequences of more than two consonants). All of these facts point to a special status of the segment /s/ in any sC(C) - cluster. Phonotactic theories have accounted for the exceptional behaviour of /s/ by postulating a different syllable structure for this type of cluster. In doing so, the /s/ in sC(C) - clusters is allocated to a left appendix position (alternatively called extrametrical or (pre-)marginal position, with differences as to whether it is attached to the onset, syllable node or prosodic word node) or to a preceding syllable (depending on the syllable theory in use).
The fourth combination, obstruent + sonorant, is the most frequent type of consonant clusters in Dutch. Obstruent-sonorant-sequences obey the universal preference for an increase in sonority within onset clusters. However, some restrictions can be found nevertheless.
Concerning /Cn-/, /Cl-/ and /Cr-/ onset clusters, a tendency for voiceless obstruents to precede one of the three sonorants can be noticed. Since sonorants are inherently voiced, i.e. they are not explicitly specified with the feature [voice], it is possible to claim a general preference for voice agreement for such sequences.
Furthermore, OCP-effects can be found. First, clusters of two coronals like /*tl-/, /*dl-/ and /*zl-/ are not allowed due to a violation of the OCP with respect to coronal place of articulation. Notice that the sequences /sl-/ and /ʃl-/ are allowed, which gives additional evidence for proposing a different syllabic structure for /s/ʃ + C/ clusters (see also Onset: sequences of more than two consonants). Second, clusters such as /*pʋ-/, /*bʋ-/, /*fʋ-/ and /*vʋ-/ are prohibited as a result of an OCP violation caused by their shared labial place of articulation.
Moreover, the rhotic consonant can cluster relatively freely with obstruents in Dutch, which might be an indication that the rhotic consonant lacks a specification for place of articulation. The only obstruent-rhotic-consonant-sequences that are not allowed are word-initial sibilant-rhotic-consonant-sequences such as /*zr-/ and /*ʃr-/. The sequence /sr-/ occurs only in recent, highly marginal loans (see table 1 above). Trommelen (1984:110-111, citingZonneveld, ms.) claims that there is a filter/constraint active in Dutch that prohibits sibilant-rhotic-consonant-sequences. According to Trommelen, when such a sequence occured in the history of Dutch, the plosive /t/ intruded leading to (semantically related) oppositions such as
| remmen restrain | vs. | stremmen coagulate |
| rekken stretch | vs. | strekken stretch |
| siroop syrup | vs. | stroop treacle |
| (cf. courant newspaper | vs. | krant newspaper). |
Finally, obstruent-glide-sequences are highly restricted. In word-initial onset clusters, the palatal glide follows (almost exclusively voiceless) obstruents only in a small set of loanwords (notice the contrast to word-medial onset clusters involving the diminutive suffix - see extra section below). The velar fricatives cannot be followed by any glide, i.e. /*xj-/, /*ɣj-/, /*xʋ-/ and /*ɣʋ-/.
In the examples above we see that obstruent + glide consonant clusters such as /pj-/, /tj-/ or /kj-/ appear only marginally in word-initial syllable onsets. In contrast, in word-medial syllable onsets the very same clusters occur frequently in e.g. diminutives, in which the morpheme /-(t)jə/ is attached to the root and place assimilation applies. Consequently, these clusters can be found in words like boompje /bom.pjə/ tree-DIM small tree, treintje /trɛin.tjə/ train-DIM small train or koninkje /ko.nɪŋ.kjə/ king-DIM little king. These examples illustrate that there are differences in the restrictiveness of phonotactics on the syllable level and phonotactics at the word level.
- 1995The phonology of DutchOxfordOxford University Press
- 1984The Syllable in DutchDordrechtForis
- 1984The Syllable in DutchDordrechtForis
- 1984The Syllable in DutchDordrechtForis
- 1983Lexical and phonological properties of Dutch voicing assimilationvan den Broecke, M., van Heuven, V. & Zonneveld, W. (eds.)Sound Structures: Studies for Anthonie CohenDordrechtForis Publications
