
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
Copula verb constructions in Afrikaans contain a copula verb, a subject and a complementive (or predicate). The classification of the construction is mainly based on the semantic contribution of the complementive, which relates to the subject. For this reason, the complementive is often called the subject complement. Copula verb constructions also allow a wider range of possible syntactic realisations of both the subject (noun phrase or complement clause), and the complementive (noun phrase, adjective phrase, complement clause or adverbial) in comparison to typical dynamic verb constructions.
The semantic analysis of the copular verbs themselves is set out elsewhere. This section zooms in on the meanings that the complementive contributes to the clause as a whole, and on the possible syntactic realisations of the subject and complementive.
Copula verbs are also used in a number of specific constructions with complement clauses, which have their own grammatical properties and semantic possibilities. The use of subject clauses and complementive (or predicate) clauses are presented elsewhere, in terms of the complement clause type: declarative subject, and declarative predicate clauses, interrogative subject and interrogative predicate clauses, and infinitive complement clauses.
A number of aspectual constructions in Afrikaans, such as [aan die NOM wees] [to be X-ing] make use of the copular verb wees to be, which are explained as part of the exposition of aspect.
The complementive attributes a range of possible specifications or meanings to the subject (Ponelis 1979:218-227). Some of these meanings are restricted to particular syntactic realisations, but others allow different ways of expression in syntactic categories.
A description of the subject, typically encoded by an adjective phrase or a noun phrase, is one of the most typical meanings that a complementive encodes. These are illustrated in example (1a) and (1b). Noun phrases used descriptively as complementives are typically indefinite.
a. | Johannes Calvyn Luther Willems is bang vir enigiets in die wêreld. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Johannes Calvyn Luther Willems is [(AP) bang vir enigiets in die wêreld]. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
John Calvin Luther Williams is afraid of anything in the world. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
HCSA |
b. | Die kleedrepetisie is 'n fiasko. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Die kleedrepetisie is [(NP) 'n fiasko]. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The dress rehearsal is a fiasco. |
The complementive can relate to the subject as an identifier, rather than a descriptor, in which case the complementive is a definite noun phrase, as illustrated by example (2a), including a proper noun, as in (2b).
a. | Die gewig van 'n liggaam is die krag waarmee die aarde dit aantrek. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Die gewig van 'n liggaam is [(NP) die krag waarmee die aarde dit aantrek]. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The weight of a body is the force with which the earth attracts it | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
HCSA |
b. | Die Springbokke se kaptein is Siya Kolisi. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Die Springbokke se kaptein is [(NP) Siya Kolisi]. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The Springbok captain is Siya Kolisi. |
It is often possible to invert the subject and complementive without noticeable difference in meaning, and without loss of grammaticality, as shown by example (3a), but this is a marked option for descriptors and used only in emphatic ways, usually restricted to poetic language, as illustrated by (3b).
a. | Siya Kolisi is die Springbokke se kaptein. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
[(NP) Siya Kolisi] is [(NP) die Springbokke se kaptein]. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Siya Kolisi is the Springbok captain. |
b. | O koud is die windjie en skraal | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
O [(AP) koud] is [(NP) die windjie] en skraal | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Oh cold is the wind and slight | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
E. Marais: "Winternag" |
Some complementives, both adjectival and nominal, express measurements. These measurements can be spatial, temporal, or even cover the cost of something.
a. | Die ledigheid kos die maatskappye etlike miljoene dollars. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Die ledigheid kos die maatskappye [(NP) etlike miljoene dollars]. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The idleness costs the companies several million dollars. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
HCSA |
b. | Die rus duur nooit lank nie. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Die rus duur nooit [(AP) lank] nie. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The peace never lasts long. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
HCSA, adjusted |
c. | Die gewig van een liter water is een kilogram. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Die gewig van een liter water is [(NP) een kilogram]. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The mass of a liter of water is one kilogram. |
Locative meanings are conveyed by adverbials, either indicating a place or a direction, as illustrated by the examples in (5). In the case of direction, the postposition toe towards is often used to distinguish mere location from the intended goal of the movement, without using a dynamic verb to denote the actual movement.
a. | Ons bly in 'n veiligheidskompleks. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Ons bly [(PP) in 'n veiligheidskompleks]. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
We live in a security complex. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
HCSA |
b. | Ons is hier by die huis. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Ons is [(AdvP) hier by die huis]. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
We are here in our house | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
HCSA |
c. | Pappa is al kamer toe. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Pappa is al [(PP) kamer toe]. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Daddy has already gone to the room. |
Complementives can be used to express temporal meanings, mainly a point in time. Usually, a dummy subject dit is used, with the copular verb wees to be or word to become, as illustrated by the examples in (6).
a. | Dit is mos Vrydag. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Dit is mos [(NP) Vrydag]. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
It is Friday indeed. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
HCSA |
b. | Dit word altyd weer aand. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Dit word altyd weer [(NP) aand]. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
It always becomes evening again. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
HCSA |
Noun phrases, adjective phrases, adverb phrases and preposition phrases are all used as potential complementives, alongside complement clauses.
The noun phrase remains the most typical complementive in copular verb constructions, just like it is in other argument constructions for dynamic verbs. It can be used to convey a range of meanings: identifying (in which case it has to be definite) – example (2), descriptive (in which case it has to be indefinite) – example (1b), measure (where the head noun has to denote a unit of measurement or some generalised notion of measuring a quantity) – example (4a, 4c), and adverbial meanings place and time (where the noun has to indicate a place or delineate a point in time ) – example (6).
An adjective phrase is mainly used to describe a noun, as in example (1a) and (3b). Such use of the adjective is called a predicative adjective, and stands in contrast with an attributive adjective, that does not combine with a noun to form a clause, but rather serves as a premodifier within a noun phrase. The contrast is exemplified in (7).
a. | Hier is 'n lekker koppie koffie. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Hier is [(NP) 'n lekker koppie koffie]. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Here is a nice cup of coffee. |
b. | Die koppie koffie is lekker. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
[(Clause) Die koppie koffie is [(AP) lekker]]. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The cup of coffee is nice. |
The use of adverbials, either in the form of adverb phrases or preposition phrases, as illustrated by the examples in (5), has to be distinguished from the use of adverbials as optional adjuncts in clauses. The adverbials in (5) cannot be omitted, otherwise the sentences become ungrammatical. The distinction is illustrated by the pair of examples in (8), where the primed examples indicate the consequences of omitting the adverbial.
a. | Die bom het gebars op Vrydagmiddag. |
The bomb exploded on Friday afternoon. | |
[Optional adverbial use] |
a.' | Die bom het gebars. |
The bomb exploded. |
b. | Die wedstryd was op Vrydagmiddag. |
The game was on Friday afternoon | |
[Compulsory complementive use] |
b.' | *Die wedstryd was. |
The game was. |
- Ponelis, F.A1979Afrikaanse sintaksis.Van Schaik
