- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- Introduction to Frisian
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans Consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological Processes
- Phonotactics
- Segment inventory
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Introduction to Noun Phrases
- Introduction to Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution
- Predication
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Introduction to Verb Phrases
- Phonology
The unrounded low front-central A-class vowel/a/ is found in words such as:
a. | la | /la/ | drawer |
b. | trema | /tre.ma/ | [ˈtrema] | diaeresis |
c. | gitaar | /xi.tar/ | [xiˈtar] | guitar |
d. | granaat | /xra.nat/ | [xraˈnat] | grenade, shell |
It is spelled with a single letter <a> in open syllables; this letter is doubled (<aa>) in closed syllables.
Figure 1(cf. Gussenhoven 1992) depicts the (Dutch) vowel's position within the vowel chart.

Formant values vary with the type of speech, gender of the speaker, and speech community (the Netherlands or Flanders). Below are some reported average F1/F2 values.
F1 | mixed | female | male |
Netherlands | 801 | 986 | 795 |
771 | 912 | 738 | |
670 | |||
Flanders | 826 | 868 | 717 |
807 |
F2 | mixed | female | male |
Netherlands | 1498 | 1443 | 1301 |
1509 | 1572 | 1409 | |
1425 | |||
Flanders | 1506 | 1640 | 1429 |
1511 |
Canada | [kanada] | / | [kɑnadɑ] | / | [kɑnɑda] | / | [kɑnɑdɑ] | / | [*kanadɑ] | / | [*kanɑdɑ] |
This variation is at least partially regional and has not been seriously studied; it seems to us for instance, that [ɑ] at the end of the word is only found in Flanders. What exactly determines the reason why some a[a]’s can be realized as [ɑ]'s or vice versa, whereas others cannot, is not clear. Also otherwise, the two vowels seem sometimes to change position. For instance, the generalization that intervocalic fricatives are voiced after a tautomorphemic A-class vowel and voiceless after a B-class vowel has exceptions exactly with this pair:
a. | mazzel | [mɑzəl] | good luck |
b. | Pasen | [pasən] | Easter |
- Adank, Patti, Hout, Roeland van & Smits, Roel2004An acoustic description of the vowels of Northern and Southern Standard DutchJournal of the Acoustical Society of America1161729--1738
- Adank, Patti, Hout, Roeland van & Smits, Roel2004An acoustic description of the vowels of Northern and Southern Standard DutchJournal of the Acoustical Society of America1161729--1738
- Collins, B. & Mees, I2003The Phonetics of English and DutchLeidenE.J. Brill
- Collins, B. & Mees, I2003The Phonetics of English and DutchLeidenE.J. Brill
- Collins, B. & Mees, I2003The Phonetics of English and DutchLeidenE.J. Brill
- Eijkman, L.P.H1937Phonetiek van het NederlandsHaarlemDe Erven F. Bohn N.V.
- Gussenhoven, Carlos1992DutchJournal of the International Phonetic Association2245-47
- Gussenhoven, Carlos1993The Dutch foot and the chanted callJournal of Linguistics2937-63
- Jacobi, Irene2009On Variation and Change in Diphthongs and Long Vowels of Spoken DutchUniversity of AmsterdamThesis
- Dutch
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- The unrounded low back vowel /ɑ/
[92%] Dutch > Phonology > Segment inventory > Vowel inventory
- The rounded high front-central vowel /y/
[89%] Dutch > Phonology > Segment inventory > Vowel inventory
- The rounded high-mid back vowel /o/
[89%] Dutch > Phonology > Segment inventory > Vowel inventory
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
[87%] Dutch > Phonology > Segment inventory > Vowel inventory
- The rounded high-mid front-central vowel /ø/
[86%] Dutch > Phonology > Segment inventory > Vowel inventory
- Vowel reduction in word-final position
[62%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Vowel reduction introduction
- The resolution of hiatus between a monophthong and a following vowel
[59%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Vowel hiatus resolution
- Constraints on diphthongs
[59%] Frisian > Phonology > Segment inventory > Vowel sequences
- Orthography
[58%] Frisian > Phonology > Orthography of Frisian
- Generalizations on the placement of primary stress in loanwords
[58%] Frisian > Phonology > Word stress > Primary stress
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
[69%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Segment inventory
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
[66%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Segment inventory > Overview of Afrikaans Consonants
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
[64%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Word stress
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
[63%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Segment inventory > Overview of Afrikaans Consonants
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
[62%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Word stress
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- -schap (de)
[61%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Nouns > Nominal suffixes
- -ier
[59%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Nouns > Nominal suffixes
- -ing
[58%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Nouns > Nominal suffixes
- -eus
[58%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Adjectives > Adjectival suffixes
- -heid
[57%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Nouns > Nominal suffixes
- Cardinal numbers
[56%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Numerals
- In prenominal position
[55%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Adjectives
- -ich
[55%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Adjectival suffixes > Noun as base
- -e
[55%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Onomastic suffixes > Numeral as base
- -en
[54%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Adverbial suffixes > Adverb as base
- Nominalising conversion
[79%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Conversion
- Adjectivising conversion
[71%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Conversion
- Verbalising conversion
[69%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Conversion
- Other types of conversion
[68%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Conversion
- List of affixes
[67%] Afrikaans > Morphology > List of affixes
- Dutch
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[69%] Dutch > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases
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[69%] Dutch > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
[69%] Dutch > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases
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[69%] Dutch > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases
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[69%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases
- Restriction of the B-construction to modals
[54%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Expression of irrealis
- Paradigm
[54%] Frisian > Syntax > Nouns & Noun Phrases > Articles and names > The demonstrative article
- The past imperative as the expression of the irrealis
[52%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Expression of irrealis
- With expletive object (it drok praten hawwe 'be busy talking')
[52%] Frisian > Syntax > Adjective Phrases > Predication > Complementive constructions > Transitive predication > Aspectual hawwe
- Reflexive pronouns and the emphatic adverbial modifier sels 'himself'
[52%] Frisian > Syntax > Nouns & Noun Phrases > Pronouns
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[72%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Adjective Phrases > Participles and infinitives as adjectives
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[62%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Adjective Phrases > Predication
- Type of NP in PP and linear order
[60%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Adjective Phrases > Complementation
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[57%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Characterization and classification > Modality
