- Dutch1
- Frisian
- Saterfrisian
- Afrikaans
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- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
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- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Compositions
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
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- General
- Morphology
- Morphology
- 1 Word formation
- 1.1 Compounding
- 1.1.1 Compounds and their heads
- 1.1.2 Special types of compounds
- 1.1.2.1 Affixoids
- 1.1.2.2 Coordinative compounds
- 1.1.2.3 Synthetic compounds and complex pseudo-participles
- 1.1.2.4 Reduplicative compounds
- 1.1.2.5 Phrase-based compounds
- 1.1.2.6 Elative compounds
- 1.1.2.7 Exocentric compounds
- 1.1.2.8 Linking elements
- 1.1.2.9 Separable Complex Verbs and Particle Verbs
- 1.1.2.10 Noun Incorporation Verbs
- 1.1.2.11 Gapping
- 1.2 Derivation
- 1.3 Minor patterns of word formation
- 1.1 Compounding
- 2 Inflection
- 1 Word formation
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Adjectives and adjective phrases (APs)
- 0 Introduction to the AP
- 1 Characteristics and classification of APs
- 2 Complementation of APs
- 3 Modification and degree quantification of APs
- 4 Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative
- 5 Attribution of APs
- 6 Predication of APs
- 7 The partitive adjective construction
- 8 Adverbial use of APs
- 9 Participles and infinitives as APs
- Nouns and Noun Phrases (NPs)
- 0 Introduction to the NP
- 1 Characteristics and Classification of NPs
- 2 Complementation of NPs
- 3 Modification of NPs
- 3.1 Modification of NP by Determiners and APs
- 3.2 Modification of NP by PP
- 3.3 Modification of NP by adverbial clauses
- 3.4 Modification of NP by possessors
- 3.5 Modification of NP by relative clauses
- 3.6 Modification of NP in a cleft construction
- 3.7 Free relative clauses and selected interrogative clauses
- 4 Partitive noun constructions and constructions related to them
- 4.1 The referential partitive construction
- 4.2 The partitive construction of abstract quantity
- 4.3 The numerical partitive construction
- 4.4 The partitive interrogative construction
- 4.5 Adjectival, nominal and nominalised partitive quantifiers
- 4.6 Kind partitives
- 4.7 Partitive predication with a preposition
- 4.8 Bare nominal attribution
- 5 Articles and names
- 6 Pronouns
- 7 Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- 8 Interrogative pronouns
- 9 R-pronouns and the indefinite expletive
- 10 Syntactic functions of Noun Phrases
- Adpositions and Adpositional Phrases (PPs)
- 0 Introduction to the PP
- 1 Characteristics and classification of PPs
- 2 Complementation of PPs
- 3 Modification of PPs
- 4 Bare (intransitive) adpositions
- 5 Predication of PPs
- 6 Form and distribution of adpositions with respect to staticity and construction type
- 7 Adpositional complements and adverbials
- Verbs and Verb Phrases (VPs)
- 0 Introduction to the VP in Saterland Frisian
- 1 Characteristics and classification of verbs
- 2 Unergative and unaccusative subjects and the auxiliary of the perfect
- 3 Evidentiality in relation to perception and epistemicity
- 4 Types of to-infinitival constituents
- 5 Predication
- 5.1 The auxiliary of being and its selection restrictions
- 5.2 The auxiliary of going and its selection restrictions
- 5.3 The auxiliary of continuation and its selection restrictions
- 5.4 The auxiliary of coming and its selection restrictions
- 5.5 Modal auxiliaries and their selection restrictions
- 5.6 Auxiliaries of body posture and aspect and their selection restrictions
- 5.7 Transitive verbs of predication
- 5.8 The auxiliary of doing used as a semantically empty finite auxiliary
- 5.9 Supplementive predication
- 6 The verbal paradigm, irregularity and suppletion
- 7 Verb Second and the word order in main and embedded clauses
- 8 Various aspects of clause structure
- Adjectives and adjective phrases (APs)
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- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
Regressive voice assimilation (RVA) is a well-known phonological process, extensively present in Afrikaans, much more than in Dutch.
In Dutch, RVA is restricted to consonant clusters where the second obstruent is a voiced plosive. In such cases, the first obstruent of the cluster agrees in voicing with the voiced plosive; for extensive references, see the topic on RVA in Dutch. According to Le Roux and Pienaar (1927), for Afrikaans a similar situation existed until at least the early decades of the previous century i.e. only stop consonants acted as triggers for RVA. Wissing, in a number of publications (e.g. in Wissing, 1992), points out that since then this has changed dramatically – that is to say providing Le Roux and Pienaar's (1927) observation was correct. All voiced segments – fricatives, sonorant consonants, glides and even vowels to an extent, may cause RVA to take place. Moreover, RVA is present in different types of grammatical structures: compound words, derivations and in phrases, that is, both within words and across word boundaries.
As a point of departure (in Section A), RVA in Afrikaans compounds is described, taken from Wissing (1990) and, to an extent, from Combrink and De Stadler (1987). Subsequently, in Section B, results are reported of an experiment (see Wissing (1992)) in which the occurrence of RVA in compounds, derivations and in phrases was investigated. A preliminary scale is provided of the relative strength of voicing influence that segments have on preceding voiceless consonants.
In the final section C, the results provided in Sections A and B are compared to those obtained from an investigation of the presence of RVA in the RSG spoken database, mentioned in the introduction to phonological processes; we focus on readings by one male presenter of RSG news bulletins; these are characterised by the clear presence of regressive voice assimilation.
Examples of RVA where obstruents are involved are as follows. (4.4) below serves as a representative for all types of fricatives combined in C1 and C2 positions i.e. /sv/, /fv/ and /xv/. In later sections, more instances of RVA, i.a. with sonorant consonants as triggering segments in C2-position, are provided. Following this list of examples, two representative examples of oscillograms and spectrograms, as well as accompaning sounds are given, one of a fricative, and another of a stop consonant as C1 – see Figure 1.
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- /pd/ > [bd]: opdrag /ɔpdrɑx/ ['ɔbdrɑx] command
- /pb/ > [b]: rampbestuur /rɑmpbəstyr/ ['rɑmbəsty:r] disaster management
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- /tb/ > [db]: kortbroek /kɔrtbruk/ ['kɔrdbruk] shorts
- /td/ > [d]: uitdien /œytdin/ ['œydin] serve
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- /kb/ > [gb]: vakbond /fɑkbɔnd/ ['fɑgbɔnt] trade union
- -
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- /sb/ > [zb]: busbestuurder /bœsbəstyrdər/ ['bœzbəsty:rdər] bus driver
- /fd/ > [vd]: hoofdirekteur /hofdirɛktør/ ['hovdirɛktør] chief director
- /xd/ > [ɣd]: lugdiens /lœxdins/ ['lœɣdins] airline
- /sv/ > [zv]: reddingswerkers /rɛdəŋsvɛrkərs/ ['rɛdəŋzværkərs] rescue workers
- In 1.2 a subsequent phonological process is common, viz. /pb/ > [bb] via RVA, and the /bb/ > [b] due to degemination (see Degemination). Mutatis mutandis the same applies to 2.2.
- 3.2 is empty; no relevant examples of words with the cluster /kg/ in compounds exist in Afrikaans, due to the presence of /g/ in loan words only.
- Products of RVA similar to these could be added should prefixes like op-, af-, uit- be considered as constituents of compounds. Examples are: opbreek break up, afbreek break down, and uitbreek break out. When RVA is applied here, the relevant clusters /pb/, /fb/ and /tb/ are realised as, respectively, [bb] (> [b]), [vb] and [db]. See below for an alternative treatment of forms similar to prefixes in derivations, as also provided in Wissing (1992).
Listen to the following example:
In Figure 1 vertical blue lines indicate the glottal pulses of voiced segments, clearly showing the regressive assimilative influence of following voiced [d] on /s/ and / [p/], rendering [z] and [b] respectively in is die and op die.
Results regarding the productivity of the phonological process of RVA in Afrikaans compounds, derivations and phrases were provided in Wissing (1992). A summary of the findings follows. Based on the results, a scale of the relative strength of consonants with respect to RVA influence is proposed.
Compounds with the structure XC1#C2Y were read in carrier phrases by two Afrikaans speaking participants; it was known beforehand that their pronunciation was characterised by the presence of RVA. C1 could be either the plosive /k/ or the fricative /s/; the C2-position was occupied by segments representing plosives ( /b/, /d/ and /v/), fricatives ( /v/), the sonorant consonants ( /l/ (lateral) and /n/ (nasal)), approximants ( /j/ /ɦ/) and vowels ( /ɑ/ /a/). These segments were also utilised in derivations and phrases (see below). Compounds of the following type were thus formed: C1 = /s/(plaas farm + botter butter), and C1 = /k/ (vark pig + bakke bowl) rendering the lists:
- plaas- + -botter, - -dogter, -werker, -naam, -lewe, -jagter, -hekke, -akkers.
- vark- + -bakke, -dorings, -wagters; -niere, -lewer, -jagters, -hare, -are.
Here the description is restricted to words starting with af-, uit-, as reported in Wissing (1992). Combinations with words starting with the voiced obstruent consonants /b/, /d/ and /v/, the sonorant consonants /n/ and /l/, as well as the approximants /j/, /ɦ/ and the vowel /ɑ/, rendered the following combinations:
- af- + -brekend, -dreigend, -wagtend, -nemend, -lopend, -jakkerig, -hangend, -ademend.
- uit- + -blakerig, -dagend, -wykend, -nemend, -lewerend, -jagerig, -houdbaar, -asem.
Two types of phrase were investigated, both in carrier sentences: phrases containing normal words and phrases containing surnames (indicated by X):
- Koos wou weet of X 'n Afrikaanse woord is. Koos wanted to know whether X is an Afrikaans word.
- Maar ek weet mos dat X 'n Afrikaanse woord is. But of course I know that X is an Afrikaans word.
- Ek dink dis X wat Piet wou spel. I think it is X that Piet wanted to spell
The focus words are: baar, daar, waar, naar, lelik, hopeloos, jammer, amper.
Inserted surnames are: Barendse, Daneel, Wouters, Nelson, Leenderts, Haarhoff, Albertyn.
Onsets of both types are respectively /b/, /d/, /v/, /n/, /l/, /ɦ/, /j/ and /ɑ/.
In cases of RVA the three consonants /f/ (in of (1)); /t/ (in dat (2)); and /s/ (in dis (3)) changed to the phones [v], [d] and [z] respectively.
The results of this investigation show that RVA is present in all instances, though not to the same degree. Obstruents are much stronger in influencing preceding segments' voice status, followed by sonorant consonants, approximants and to a very small degree also vowels. The RAP index for all the categories taken together (N = 651) is 0.44. Phrases with focus words inserted in the carrier sentence rendered a RAP of 0.64, while for phrases with surnames the RAP was 0.30. In comparison, compounds scored 0.23 while derivations scored 0.21. Clearly RVA is applied significantly more in phrases. Analysed per type of segment, obstruents are strongest (plosives 0.64; fricatives 0.62), followed by laterals (0.26) and nasals (0.24). The approximants scored a lowish 0.17, and vowels only 0.02. Based on these RAP indexes, a strength hierarchy was proposed by Wissing (1992).
PLOSIVES > | FRICATIVES > | LATERALS > | NASALS > | APPROXIMANTS > | VOWELS |
/b/ /d/ | /v/ | /l/ | /n/ | /ɦ/ /j/ | /a/ |
This hierarchy is very much in line with the universally accepted Sonority Sequencing Principle proposed by Clements (1990). Statistical differences lead to a threefold distinction between plosives, fricatives and the rest of the segments.
On the basis of the results of the foregoing experiment, the exploitation of the RSG dataset was confined to the presence of RVA in normal words in sentence context (notably in phrases). Furthermore, in order to limit the extent of this section, the same segment clusters as above, as read by one RSG-presenter, were investigated. Therefore, the focus is on the obstruents viz. the voiceless and voiced plosives and fricatives.
This section constitutes an overview of the appearance of RVA in sentences in the RSG news bulletins as read by one RSG presenter, known to be a clear producer of RVA. The focus is on providing a representative sample in which obstruents are involved. Furthermore, for the purpose of comparison, the description is limited to the same clusters of consonants that are mentioned in (1) – (4) above, viz. /pd/, /pb/, /tb/, /td/, /kb/, /sb/, /fd/, /xd/ and /sv/.
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- /pd/ > [bd]: op dieselfde /'ɔp di'sɛlfdə/ ['ɔb di'sælfdə] on the same
- /pb/ > [b]: op Bethlehem /ɔp bɛtliɦɛm/ [ɔ-'bɛtliɦɛm] in Bethlehem
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- /tb/ > [db]: dit bring /dət brəŋ/ [dəd brəŋ] this brings
- /td/ > [d]: het die /ɦɛt di/ [ɦɛ- di] have the
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- /kb/ > [gb]: week bekend /vek bəkɛnd/ [viəg bəkɛnt] week known
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- /sb/ > [zb]: lopies byvoeg /lopis bəifux/ [luəpiz bəifux] adding on runs
- /fd/ > [vd]: of die /ɔf di/ [ɔv di] or the
- /xd/ > [ɣd]: Johannesburg dood /joɦɑnəsbœrx dod/ [joɦɑnəsbœrɣ duət] Johannesburg dead
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- /sv/ > [zv]: dis waar /dəs var/ [dəz var] it's true
- Large interindividual and even intraindividual variation exists in the total RSG spoken database; the results should be viewed in this light.
- RVA is markedly more present in the readings of the male presenters.
- Generally RVA is clearly present in the pronunciation of the RSG-presenter whose results are given above.
- Complete 100% assimilation is found in the two cases where homorganic plosives are involved, viz. in 1b and 1c.
- Even though the consonants /f/ and /d/ in 2b are not homorganic, RVA is present in all productions of this speaker.
- Two other plosive clusters (1a and 1d), with voiceless /p/ and /t/ as C1's, also have very high RAP scores ( > 0.80); /k/ is far less prone to RVA (RAP = 0.50 and 0.60), but there is nonetheless still clear evidence for the widely spread occurrence of this type of assimilation.
- A characteristic of Afrikaans RVA, different than in Dutch is the presence of RVA where C2 is a fricative, as is clearly seen in 3.
- The allophones [g] (in (1.e) and (1.f), [z] (in (2.a) and (3), as well as [ɣ] (in (2.c) are less common though nevertheless still above 0.50, demonstrating the prolific strength of RVA as a phonological process in Afrikaans.
In the word lists below more examples are provided of the ten types of phrasal combinations of obstruents as provided in the tables below.
/pd/ > [bd] (1a) | /pb/ > [b] (1b) | /td/ > [d] (1c) | /tb/ > [db] (1d) | /kd/ > [gd] (1e) | /kb/ > [gb] (1f) |
daarop dat | dorp beset | Duitsland die | besigheid by | boek deur | aansoek by |
Kemp drie | groep beswaardes | gemeet deur | front bibber | Derick Duvenhage | gemaak by |
op dertien | kusdorp by | het die | het benadruk | maak daarop | ongeluk betrokke |
op dieselfde | op buitelandse | luitenant Derrick | met boere | ongeluk dood | ook bekommerd |
op drie | stap besluit | moontlikheid dat | rand by | ook drasties | ook bevind |
stormloop dood | voedselhulp benodig | sowat dertig | strand buite | tronk dood | versoek beslis |
waarop die | vragskip by | vanoggend deel | wat bekend | vermoedelik deur | week bekend |
/sd/ > [zd] (2a) | /fd/ > [vd] (2b) | /xd/ > [ɣd] (2c) | /sv/ > [zv] (3) |
as dertig | asof die | berig dat | as wraak |
as die | homself daarna | klopjag deur | burgers woon |
gevrees dat | hulleself die | nog drie | gewys word |
is diep | of daar | Saterdag deur | inwoners wat |
ses-drie | of dat | slag dood | is Woensdag |
tydens die | of dokumente | verwag dat | ooreenkoms wat |
weens die | of driehonderd | volg die | uiters warm |
- RVA mostly but not exclusively occurs with function words like is, het and of in the affected position, but as is clear from the examples, content words are also influenced, e.g. nouns such as stormloop in (1.a), verbs like gemeet in (1.3), and adjectives such as uiters in (3).
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