- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- Introduction to Frisian
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans Consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological Processes
- Phonotactics
- Segment inventory
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Introduction to Noun Phrases
- Introduction to Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution
- Predication
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Introduction to Verb Phrases
- Phonology
Certain pairs of Verb Phrase (VP)-internal elements may show up in either order. One of the two orders is neutral, whereas the other is presuppositional and characterised by an intonation pattern with two peaks. One member of the pair of VP-internal elements is a polar adverb, usually the adverb of negation. However, the same phenomenon can also be observed with the adverb of affirmation, wolindeed, probably. This adverb often functions as a downtoner, and it has been classified as a discourse particle. An example is provided below:
a. | In twadde sei 'It sil sa wol wêze' en in tredde sei 'It is sa!' | ||||||||||||||
a second said it shall so DcP be and a third said it is so | |||||||||||||||
A second person said 'It is true, I guess' and a third one said 'It is true!' |
b. | In twadde sei 'It sil wol sa wêze' en in tredde sei 'It is sa!' | ||||||||||||||
a second said it shall DcP so be and a third said it is so | |||||||||||||||
A second person said 'It is true, I guess' and a third one said 'It is true!' |
The example in (1a) illustrates the presuppositional order, whereas (1b) illustrates the neutral word order. The presuppositional order is characteristic of Frisian, whereas the second order is found both in Frisian and Dutch.
Other elements can likewise both precede the adverb of affirmation wol, displaying the presuppositional order in this way. Some examples are given below, with various types of comparative constituents:
a. | It lân is dêr sa goed wol as yn Gaasterlân | ||||||||||||||
the land is there so good DcP as in Gaasterlân | |||||||||||||||
The land over there is at least as good as in Gaasterlân |
b. | Ik wie dochs sa sterk wol dat ik it pealtsje derút loek | ||||||||||||||
I was nevertheless DcP so strong that I the pole R.out pull | |||||||||||||||
But for the rest, I was so strong that I pulled the pole out of the ground |
c. | Elk wie sa wiis wol om fan 'e tsjerke gjin bewaarskoalle te meitsjen | ||||||||||||||
each was so wise DcP for of the church no nursery.school to make | |||||||||||||||
Nobody was so foolish as to turn the church into a nursery school |
d. | Okke is sels sa wiis wol en bliuw der wei | ||||||||||||||
Okke is himself so wise DcP and stay R away | |||||||||||||||
Okke himself was so wise as to stay away from there |
Dutch allows the neutral (non-scrambled) order with its counterpart welprobably, indeed in comparable examples in case the comparative clause is a sentence, but not in case it is Noun Phrase (NP) or an Adposition Phrase (PP). The following sentence is a complex case in which the adverb of degree and manner can be found before or after a sequence of three other particles:
a. | No, giet it ûnder 'e minsken ek sa wol net ris? | ||||||||||||||
well goes it under the people also so DcP not DcP | |||||||||||||||
Well, this happens with people as well, does not it? |
b. | No, giet it ûnder 'e minsken ek wol net ris sa? | ||||||||||||||
well goes it under the people also DcP not DcP so | |||||||||||||||
Well, this happens with people as well, does not it? |
Perhaps the adverb of manner and degree may occur in any position in the middle field, but this intuition should be verified.
Alongside wolprobably, indeed, Frisian also has the discourse particle alindeed, which does not have the downtoning meaning which the wol can have. Nor is the use of this particle compatible with the presuppositional word order:
a. | *Dat liket my sa goed al ta | ||||||||||||||
that seems me so good DcP to | |||||||||||||||
That is quite good, according to me |
b. | Dat liket my al sa goed ta | ||||||||||||||
that seems me DcP so good to | |||||||||||||||
That is quite good, according to me |
This example is quite idiomatic and the discourse particle seems to function as an intensifier with presuppositional content. The degree denotation of this particle seems to be deictic or referential, rather than quantificational. Correspondingly, it may not be accompanied by a comparative constituent in the form of an NP, as in the following example:
a. | *Hjoed is it al sa kâld as juster | ||||||||||||||
today is it DcP so cold as yesterday | |||||||||||||||
Today is it at least as cold as yesterday |
b. | Juster wie it min tsien en hjoed is it al sa kâld | ||||||||||||||
yesterday was it minus ten and today is it DcP so cold | |||||||||||||||
Yesterday, it was minus ten and today it is just as cold as well |
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Intonation
[80%] Dutch > Phonology > Accent & intonation
- Acoustic correlates of stress
[79%] Dutch > Phonology > Accent & intonation
- Stem allomorphy
[78%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonology-morphology interface > Allomorphy
- The spelling of linking elements in compounds
[78%] Dutch > Phonology > Spelling
- Abstract phonological forms in Dutch orthography
[77%] Dutch > Phonology > Spelling
- Orthography
[84%] Frisian > Phonology > Orthography of Frisian
- The phonological domain of Final Devoicing
[83%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Final devoicing
- Phonological evidence for cliticization
[82%] Frisian > Phonology > Clitics
- /d/-insertion in the sequences /nər/, /lər/, and /rər/
[81%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes
- Schwa deletion as a synchronic process: how to deal with lapses
[81%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Schwa deletion
- The phonotactics of Afrikaans
[80%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonotactics
- Nasalization
[79%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Vowel related processes
- d-deletion
[78%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes > Consonant cluster simplification: Overview
- Homorganic glide insertion
[78%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes
- r-deletion
[78%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
[82%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Compounding
- Case - the partitive construction
[80%] Dutch > Morphology > Inflection > Nouns > Case
- Adjectival inflection
[78%] Dutch > Morphology > Inflection
- Possessive pronouns
[78%] Dutch > Morphology > Inflection > Pronouns
- Case in the tot-INFINITIVE-s toe construction
[78%] Dutch > Morphology > Inflection > Nouns > Case
- Degree
[84%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Adjectives
- Cardinal numbers
[84%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Numerals
- General categories
[84%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Verbs
- Weak verbs
[83%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Verbs
- In prenominal position
[83%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Adjectives
- Prefixation
[74%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Affixation
[74%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation
- Meaning of affixes
[73%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
[72%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Inputs and input restrictions
[72%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- 6.3. Supplementive use of the adjective
[83%] Dutch > Syntax > Adjectives and Adjective Phrases > 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 2.2.1. Tests for distinguishing PP-complements from PP-adjuncts
[83%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation > 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.2.3.1. Agentive er-nominalizations
[83%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation > 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements > 2.2.3. Deverbal nouns
- 5.1.2.1. Proper nouns
[82%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns > 5.1. Articles > 5.1.2. Noun phrases without an article
- 2.2.3.4. Ge-nominalizations
[82%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation > 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements > 2.2.3. Deverbal nouns
- The adverb of manner & degree sa 'so' and negation
[87%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Negation
- The adverb of degree followed by an adjective and negation
[85%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Negation
- The past imperative as the expression of the irrealis
[81%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Expression of irrealis
- Combining with to-infinitives
[81%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Predication and noun incorporation > Copulas
- The third construction
[81%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > To-infinitival clauses > Verbal to-infinitives
- Mood
[82%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Characterization and classification
- Equative
[82%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Adjective Phrases > Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Finite declarative complement clauses: construction forms
[81%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Complement clauses > Finite declarative complement clauses
- Complement clauses (overview)
[81%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases
- Modification of the superlative
[80%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Adjective Phrases > Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree > Superlative
