
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
Concrete, referential partitive nouns consist of the following subclasses: container nouns such as pakkie packet, part nouns such as stukkie morsel and collective nouns such as trop herd.
Three types of referential partitive nouns can be distinguished, namely i) container nouns, ii) part nouns and iii) collective nouns:
Container nouns refer to objects which integrate other objects, referred to by the content noun, into a large whole. An example of a partitive construction with a container noun (pakkie packet) is given below:
'n Pakkie gloeistokkies is meer veelsydig as wat jy dink. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a packet glow.sticks be.PRS more versatile than that.REL you.SG think | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
A pack of glow sticks is more versatile than you think. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
The first example below shows that the container noun (such as pakkie packet) may be modified by attributive adjectives (such as groot big). Container nouns allow the content noun to be realised in an Adpositional Phrase (PP) introduced by the preposition met with:
a. | Die kinders het Saterdag elkeen 'n groot pakkie smarties gekry. | ||||||||||||||
the children have.AUX Saturday each a big packet smarties get.PST | |||||||||||||||
On Saturday, the kids each got a big packet of Smarties. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
b. | Die kinders het elkeen 'n pakkie met krale en ander mooi maak goed gekry. | ||||||||||||||
the children have.AUX each a packet with beads and other beautiful make stuff get.PST | |||||||||||||||
The children each got a packet with beads and other stuff that can be used for dress-up. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
Container nouns also allow the content noun to be preceded by the functional element vol full, that is related to the homophonous adjective (for ease of reference, the functional element vol full will be referred to as an adjective):
Ant Hansie het 'n sak vol presentjies saamgestuur en blikke vol koekies. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
aunt Hansie have.AUX a bag full gifts.DIM with.send.PST and tins full biscuits | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Ant Hansie sent along a bag full of presents and tins full of biscuits. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
Container nouns allow the noun of descriptive content to be preceded by the combination of adjective and preposition vol met full with and vol van full of:
a. | Of iemand wie se huis eintlik te klein is vir al die boekrakke vol met boeke. | ||||||||||||||
or someone who.REL PTCL.GEN house really too small be.PRS for all the book.cases full with books | |||||||||||||||
Or someone whose house is in fact too small for al the bookcases filled with books. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
b. | Nouliks het Hy die woord gesê, of die kruike is al vol van die heerlikste geurige wyn! | ||||||||||||||
barely have.AUX he the word say.PST or the jars be.PRS already full PTCL.PTV the delicious.SUPL fragrant wine | |||||||||||||||
He barely said the word, or the jars were already full of the most delicious fragrant wine! | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
There are many examples in which the container noun must be joined to the content noun by means of an overt element like vol full or met with, and in which a bare partitive construction is excluded. An example is the minimal pair below:
a. | 'n rugsak vol padkos | ||||||||||||||
a backpack full road.food | |||||||||||||||
a backpack full of snacks for the road |
b. | *'n rugsak padkos | ||||||||||||||
a backpack road.food | |||||||||||||||
a backpack with snacks for the road |
c. | *'n boks gate | ||||||||||||||
a box holes | |||||||||||||||
a box of holes |
Part nouns divide substances, referred to by the content noun, into smaller wholes. Four examples of referential partitive constructions with part nouns are given below:
a. | 'n blok sjokolade | ||||||||||||||
a block chocolate | |||||||||||||||
a block of chocolate |
b. | 'n stukkie sjokoloade | ||||||||||||||
a piece.DIM chocolate | |||||||||||||||
a piece of chocolate |
c. | 'n stuk sjokolade | ||||||||||||||
a lump chocolate | |||||||||||||||
a lump of chocolate |
d. | 'n krummeltjie sjokolade | ||||||||||||||
a crumb.DIM chocolate | |||||||||||||||
a crumb of chocolate |
Part nouns cannot enter the partitive construction with met with in the reading that the part fully consists of whatever is the denotation of the substance noun.
*'n stuk met sjokolade |
a bar with chocolate |
a bar of chocolate |
A phrase such as the example above is only grammatical if it means that the bar consists of a substance that is different from chocolate, though having chocolate as supplementary substance. The same holds in case the part noun is joined to the substance noun by the adjective vol full, as in the example below:
*'n blok vol sjokolade |
a bar full chocolate |
a bar full of chocolate |
This phrase is ungrammatical in the reading that the bar fully consists of chocolate. It is only grammatical if the bar consists of a substance that is different from chocolate while having chocolate as a second substance, but it is distributed over or within the first substance. Therefore, the following example is grammatical, on the reading that the bar consists of some substance (which is likely to be chocolate) which is filled with something else, namely nuts:
'n blok met neute |
a bar with nuts |
a bar filled with nuts |
'n blok vol met neute |
a bar full with nuts |
a bar filled with nuts |
Collective nouns like container nouns organise individual elements in a larger whole. Collective nouns, unlike container nouns, do not require an object for integration into a larger whole. This integration in a larger whole is the result of a natural process.
Prototypical collective nouns are the noun versameling collection and the noun groep group:
a. | 'n Versameling cocktail rokkies is in samewerking met die mode-huis Leo Validus ontwerp en gemaak. | ||||||||||||||
a collection cocktail dresses.DIM be.AUX.PASS.PST in collaboration with the fashion-house Leo Validus design and make.PASS | |||||||||||||||
A collection of cocktail dresses was designed and made in collaboration with the fashion house Leo Validus. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
b. | Kaapse Son het onlangs met 'n anonieme groep polisielede gepraat. | ||||||||||||||
Cape Sun have.AUX recently with a anonymous group police.members talk.PST | |||||||||||||||
Cape Son recently spoke to an anonymous group of police officers. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
These two nouns can be joined by van of:
a. | Maar dit bly vir my 'n versameling van boeke en nie iets wat ek kan aanbid nie. | ||||||||||||||
but it remain for me a collection PTCL.PTV books and not something that.REL I can.AUX.MOD worship PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||
But for me it is still just a collection of books and not something that I can worship. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
b. | 'n Groep van die polisie het hulle diversiteit verklaar. | ||||||||||||||
a group PTCL.PTV the police have.AUX their diversity declare | |||||||||||||||
A group from the police declared their diversity. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
Many collective nouns refer to specific living beings, such as the noun swerm swarm, that can refer to a group of flying insects or birds, or trop herd that can only refer to a group of animals walking on land.
a. | 'n Swerm bye kan egter dodelik wees! | ||||||||||||||
a swarm bees can.AUX.MOD however deadly be.INF | |||||||||||||||
However, a swarm of bees can be deadly! | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
b. | 'n Swerm aasvoëls in die bome het verraai dat daar 'n vangs was. | ||||||||||||||
a swarm vultures in the trees have.AUX betray that.COMP there a catch be.PRT | |||||||||||||||
A colony of vultures in the trees gave away a recent kill. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
c. | Ons het langs die pad by 'n trop koeie gestop. | ||||||||||||||
we have.AUX next the road by a herd cattle stop.PST | |||||||||||||||
We stopped along the way next to a herd of cattle. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
Such nouns are not attested with a linking preposition in case the construction is unexpanded:
?'n swerm van bye |
a swarm PTCL.PTV bees |
a swarm of bees |
