- Dutch1
- Frisian
- Saterfrisian
- Afrikaans
-
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
-
- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Compositions
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
-
- General
- Morphology
- Morphology
- 1 Word formation
- 1.1 Compounding
- 1.1.1 Compounds and their heads
- 1.1.2 Special types of compounds
- 1.1.2.1 Affixoids
- 1.1.2.2 Coordinative compounds
- 1.1.2.3 Synthetic compounds and complex pseudo-participles
- 1.1.2.4 Reduplicative compounds
- 1.1.2.5 Phrase-based compounds
- 1.1.2.6 Elative compounds
- 1.1.2.7 Exocentric compounds
- 1.1.2.8 Linking elements
- 1.1.2.9 Separable Complex Verbs and Particle Verbs
- 1.1.2.10 Noun Incorporation Verbs
- 1.1.2.11 Gapping
- 1.2 Derivation
- 1.3 Minor patterns of word formation
- 1.1 Compounding
- 2 Inflection
- 1 Word formation
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Adjectives and adjective phrases (APs)
- 0 Introduction to the AP
- 1 Characteristics and classification of APs
- 2 Complementation of APs
- 3 Modification and degree quantification of APs
- 4 Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative
- 5 Attribution of APs
- 6 Predication of APs
- 7 The partitive adjective construction
- 8 Adverbial use of APs
- 9 Participles and infinitives as APs
- Nouns and Noun Phrases (NPs)
- 0 Introduction to the NP
- 1 Characteristics and Classification of NPs
- 2 Complementation of NPs
- 3 Modification of NPs
- 3.1 Modification of NP by Determiners and APs
- 3.2 Modification of NP by PP
- 3.3 Modification of NP by adverbial clauses
- 3.4 Modification of NP by possessors
- 3.5 Modification of NP by relative clauses
- 3.6 Modification of NP in a cleft construction
- 3.7 Free relative clauses and selected interrogative clauses
- 4 Partitive noun constructions and constructions related to them
- 4.1 The referential partitive construction
- 4.2 The partitive construction of abstract quantity
- 4.3 The numerical partitive construction
- 4.4 The partitive interrogative construction
- 4.5 Adjectival, nominal and nominalised partitive quantifiers
- 4.6 Kind partitives
- 4.7 Partitive predication with a preposition
- 4.8 Bare nominal attribution
- 5 Articles and names
- 6 Pronouns
- 7 Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- 8 Interrogative pronouns
- 9 R-pronouns and the indefinite expletive
- 10 Syntactic functions of Noun Phrases
- Adpositions and Adpositional Phrases (PPs)
- 0 Introduction to the PP
- 1 Characteristics and classification of PPs
- 2 Complementation of PPs
- 3 Modification of PPs
- 4 Bare (intransitive) adpositions
- 5 Predication of PPs
- 6 Form and distribution of adpositions with respect to staticity and construction type
- 7 Adpositional complements and adverbials
- Verbs and Verb Phrases (VPs)
- 0 Introduction to the VP in Saterland Frisian
- 1 Characteristics and classification of verbs
- 2 Unergative and unaccusative subjects and the auxiliary of the perfect
- 3 Evidentiality in relation to perception and epistemicity
- 4 Types of to-infinitival constituents
- 5 Predication
- 5.1 The auxiliary of being and its selection restrictions
- 5.2 The auxiliary of going and its selection restrictions
- 5.3 The auxiliary of continuation and its selection restrictions
- 5.4 The auxiliary of coming and its selection restrictions
- 5.5 Modal auxiliaries and their selection restrictions
- 5.6 Auxiliaries of body posture and aspect and their selection restrictions
- 5.7 Transitive verbs of predication
- 5.8 The auxiliary of doing used as a semantically empty finite auxiliary
- 5.9 Supplementive predication
- 6 The verbal paradigm, irregularity and suppletion
- 7 Verb Second and the word order in main and embedded clauses
- 8 Various aspects of clause structure
- Adjectives and adjective phrases (APs)
-
- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
The adjectival VP adverbs can be divided into at least the four subclasses in (47); observe that, with the exception of the frequency adverbs, the VP adverbs have a specialized interrogative form. Perhaps we should include intensifiers like erg'a lot' and vreselijk'awfully' in this table as well, but Subsection V, will show that these adverbs do not pass the VP adverb test in (15).
type | example | interrogative form | ||
Manner adverbs | snel | quickly | hoe | how |
Time adverbs | vroeg | early | wanneer | when |
Frequency adverbs | vaak | often | hoe vaak | how often |
Place adverbs | ginds | over there | waar | where |
The largest class of adjectival VP adverbs is constituted of the manner adverbs, that is, adverbs that indicate the way in which the action expressed by the verb is performed. In (48), we give some examples together with their paraphrases.
a. | Jan voerde | de taak | nauwkeurig | uit. | |
Jan carried | the task | accurately | out |
a'. | Jan voerde | de taak | uit | en | hij | deed | dat | nauwkeurig. | |
Jan carried | the task | out | and | he | did | that | accurately |
b. | De kok | diende | de soep | snel | op. | |
the cook | served | the soup | quickly | prt. |
b'. | De kok | diende | de soep | op | en | hij | deed | dat | snel. | |
the cook | served | the soup | prt. | and | he | did | that | quickly |
A typical property of the manner adverbs, which is related to their semantics, is that they can often be nominalized by means of the suffix -heid and then be modified by the PP van zijn handelen'of his acting', as in (49).
a. | de nauwkeurigheid | van zijn handelen | |
the accuracy | of his acting |
b. | de snelheid | van zijn handelen | |
the speed | of his acting |
Manner adverbs can easily be confused with supplementives such as those in (50a) and (50b), which differ semantically from manner adverbs in that they do not modify the verb phrase, but are predicated of the object or the subject of the clause. This semantic relation can be made clear by giving the paraphrases in the primed examples; see Section 6.3 for a more extensive discussion.
a. | Jan voerde | de taak | dronken | uit. | |
Jan carried | the task | drunk | out |
a'. | Jan voerde | de taak | uit, | terwijl | hij | dronken | was. | |
Jan carried | the task | out | while | he | drunk | was |
b. | De kok | diende | de soep | heet | op. | |
the cook | served | the soup | hot | prt. |
b'. | De kok | diende | de soep | op, | terwijl | ze | het | was. | |
the cook | served | the soup | prt. | while | it | hot | was |
The difficulty in distinguishing manner adverbs and supplementives is mainly related to the fact that they occupy more or less the same position in the clause. The examples in (51) illustrate this even more clearly than the examples above: manner adverbs and supplementives-II must both follow the clausal adverb natuurlijk'naturally'. Recall that Section 6.3, sub III, has shown that this placement does not hold for supplementives-I, which precede the clausal adverbs instead.
a. | Jan voerde | de taak | natuurlijk | nauwkeurig | uit. | manner adverb | |
Jan carried | the task | of.course | accurately | out |
a'. | Jan voerde | de taak | natuurlijk | dronken | uit. | supplementive-II | |
Jan carried | the task | of.course | drunk | out |
b. | De kok | diende de soep | natuurlijk | snel | op. | manner adverb | |
the cook | served | the soup | of.course | quickly | prt. |
b'. | De kok | diende de soep | natuurlijk | heet | op. | supplementive-II | |
the cook | served | the soup | of.course | hot | prt. |
Another fact that makes distinguishing manner adverbs and supplementives hard is that, just like a clause with a VP-adverb, a clause with a supplementive-II can be paraphrased by means of a coordinated en hij doet dat ... phrase if the supplementive is predicated of the subject; example (50a) can be paraphrased as in (52a). This problem does not arise if supplementive-II is predicated of the object of the clause, as is clear from the fact that (50b) cannot be paraphrased as in (52b). The contrast between the examples in (52a) and (52b) is of course due to the fact that the element the supplementive is predicated of is syntactically present in the second conjunct of the former but not of the latter example.
a. | Jan voerde | de taak | uit | en | hij | deed | dat | dronken. | |
Jan carried | the task | out | and | he | did | that | drunk |
b. | * | De kok | diende | de soep | op | en | hij | deed | dat | heet. |
the cook | served | the soup | prt. | and | he | did | that | hot |
Despite these similarities, manner adverbs and supplementives can be readily distinguished on at least three grounds; cf. Van den Toorn (1969). First, whereas two manner adverbs can be coordinated, as in (53a), coordination of a manner adverb and a supplementive-II, as in (53b-c), is excluded.
a. | Jan voerde | de taak | snel | en | nauwkeurig | uit. | |
Jan carried | the task | quickly | and | accurately | out |
b. | * | Jan voerde | de taak | dronken | en | nauwkeurig | uit. |
Jan carried | the task | drunk | and | accurately | out |
c. | * | De kok | diende | de soep | snel | en | heet | op. |
the cook | served | the soup | quickly | and | hot | prt. |
Second, the examples in (54) show that the paraphrase with a terwijl-clause, given for the supplementives in (50), cannot be used for the manner adverbs in (48), which is of course due to the fact that the manner adverbs are not predicated of the nominal argument of the verb, but instead modify the verb (phrase). This means that, whereas the availability of a paraphrase by means of a coordinated en hij doet dat ... phrase is not sufficient to conclude that we are dealing with a manner adverb, the availability of a paraphrase with a terwijl-clause is sufficient to conclude that we are dealing with a supplementive-II.
a. | * | Jan voerde | de taak | uit, | terwijl | hij | nauwkeurig | was. |
Jan carried | the task | out | while | he | accurate | was |
b. | * | De kok | diende | de soep | op, | terwijl | hij | snel | was. |
the cook | served | the soup | prt. | while | he | quick | was |
Finally, as we have seen in (49), manner adverbs can often be nominalized by means of the suffix -heid and then modified by the PP van zijn handelen'of his acting'. The examples in (55) show that supplementive adjectives cannot be nominalized in this way.
a. | * | de dronkenheid van zijn handelen |
the drunk-ness of his acting |
b. | * | de heetheid van zijn handelen |
the hot-ness of his acting |
Section 8.2.1, sub IV, has already shown that Dutch has only a few adjectival time adverbs; generally adverbial PPs are used in this function. Some examples are laat'late' and vroeg'early' in (56a); the adjectives eerder'before/earlier' and bijtijds'in time' possibly also belong to this set. The paraphrase in (56b) shows that the adjectives in (56a) behave like VP adverbs.
a. | Marie staat | vroeg/laat | op. | |
Marie gets | early/late | up |
b. | Marie staat | op | en | zij | doet | dat | vroeg/laat. | |
Marie gets | up | and | she | does | that | early/late |
That laat and vroeg are adjectival in nature is clear from the fact that they can be modified by means of an intensifier, and that they are eligible for comparative and superlative formation. This is illustrated in (57).
a. | Marie staat | (erg/zeer) | vroeg/laat | op. | |
Marie gets | very | early/late | up |
b. | Marie staat | vroeger/later | op. | |
Marie gets | earlier/later | up |
c. | Marie staat | het vroegst/laatst | op. | |
Marie gets | the earliest/latest | up |
Section 8.2.1, sub III, has shown that adverbs like altijd'always', dikwijls'frequently', #geregeld'regularly', gewoonlijk'usually', soms'sometimes', #vaak'often', #zelden'rarely', and #dagelijks'daily'/wekelijks'weekly'/maandelijks'monthly' can be used as clausal adverbs. If our paraphrase tests are reliable, the primed examples in (58) show that at least the frequency adjectives marked with “#" can also be used as VP adverbs. Observe that we replaced the coordinator en'and' by maar'but' in (58d), which is motivated by the inherent negative meaning of the adverb zelden (= not often).
a. | Jan lacht | altijd/dikwijls/gewoonlijk/soms. | |
Jan laughs | always/frequently/usually/sometimes |
a'. | Jan lacht en hij doet dat ?altijd/?dikwijls/*gewoonlijk/*soms. |
b. | Marie gaat | (vrijwel) | dagelijks | naar de kerk. | |
Marie goes | almost | daily | to the church |
b'. | Marie gaat | naar de kerk | en | zij | doet | dat | (vrijwel) | dagelijks. | |
Marie goes | to the church | and | she | does | that | almost | daily |
c. | Jan lacht | geregeld/vaak. | |
Jan laughs | regularly/often |
c'. | Jan lacht en hij doet dat geregeld/vaak. |
d. | Jan lacht | zelden. | |
Jan laughs | rarely |
d'. | Jan lacht, | maar | hij | doet | dat | zelden. | |
Jan laughs | but | he | does | that | rarely |
The two uses of the frequency adverbs as a clause or a VP adverb seem to involve two different readings, which are not always easy to distinguish. Consider example (59a). This example is ambiguous: either it expresses the fact that Marie goes to church almost every Sunday, or that, on Sunday, Marie goes to church several times. On the first reading, both the adverbial PP op zondag and the frequency adjective vaak act as clausal adverbs, and the sentence must be paraphrased as in (59b). On the second reading, only the phrase op zondag acts as a clausal adverb, and the frequency adverb cannot occur in the het is adverb zo dat ... frame; the sentence must be paraphrased as in (59b').
a. | Marie gaat | op zondag | vaak | naar de kerk. | |
Marie goes | on Sunday | often | to the church | ||
'On Sunday, Marie often goes to church.' |
b. | Het is op zondag vaak zo dat Marie naar de kerk gaat. |
b'. | Het is op zondag zo dat Marie vaak naar de kerk gaat. |
Dutch has only a few adjectival place adverbs that behave as VP adverbs; generally adverbial PPs are used in this function. Some potential adjectival place adverbs are given in (60).
a. | Jan werkt | hier/daar/ginds. | |
Jan works | here/there/over there |
a'. | Jan werkt | en | hij doet dat | hier/daar/ginds. | |
Jan works | and | he does that | here/there/over there |
b. | Het schip | loste | buitengaats | zijn afgewerkte olie. | |
the ship | discharged | offshore | its waste oil |
b'. | Het schip | loste | zijn afgewerkte olie | en | het | deed | dat | buitengaats. | |
the ship | discharged | its waste oil | and | it | did | that | offshore |
It is, however, hard to show that these place adverbs are adjectival in nature; the elements hier'here', daar'there' and ginds'yonder', for instance, can also be considered prepositional pro-forms since they can be replaced by the prepositional phrase in Amsterdam. Examples like buitengaats'offshore' and buitenshuis'outdoors' may have originated from prepositional phrases headed by buiten'outside', but examples in which they occur inflected in prenominal attributive position can readily be found on the internet, although we want to note that such cases do not strike us as being part of colloquial speech: buitengaatse windmolen'offshore windmill'; ?binnenshuize lift'indoor elevator'.
Degree adverbs (intensifiers) typically occur with verbs that are stative or habitual. Two examples are given in (61).
a. | Jan haat | Peter erg/vreselijk. | |
Jan hates | Peter very/awfully | ||
'Jan hates Peter a lot/awfully.' |
b. | Jan rookt | erg/vreselijk/zwaar. | |
Jan smokes | very/awfully/heavily | ||
'Jan smokes a lot/awfully/heavily.' |
The adverbs of degree cannot be classified by means of the tests in (11) and (15): the examples in (62) show that the adverbs in (61) can be placed neither in the het is adverb zo dat ... framenor in a ... en pronoun doet dat adverb clause.
a. | * | Het is erg/vreselijk zo dat Jan Peter haat. |
a'. | *? | Jan haat Peter en hij doet dat erg/vreselijk. |
b. | * | Het is erg/vreselijk/zwaar zo dat Jan rookt. |
b'. | *? | Jan rookt en hij doet dat erg/vreselijk/zwaar. |
The examples in (63) show that the degree adverbs follow the clausal adverbs, which suggests that they do not function as a modifier of the full clause.
a. | Jan haat | Peter <*erg/vreselijk> | natuurlijk <erg/vreselijk>. | |
Jan hates | Peter very/awfully | of course |
a'. | Het is natuurlijk zo dat Jan Peter vreselijk haat. |
b. | Jan rookt | <*erg/vreselijk/zwaar> | natuurlijk <erg/vreselijk/zwaar>. | |
Jan smokes | very/awfully/heavily | of course |
b'. | Het is natuurlijk zo dat Jan erg/vreselijk/zwaar rookt. |
The fact that ... en pronoun doet dat adverb paraphrases in the primed examples in (62) are unacceptable may be due to the fact that the verb doen'to do' implies some (controlled) action and is therefore not able to replace stative verbs like haten'to hate' or habitual verbs like roken'to smoke' in (61). If this suggestion is on the right track, we should conclude that the ... en pronoun doet dat adverb test only provides valid results if we are dealing with verbs denoting actions.
This subsection concludes with a brief discussion of the subject oriented adverb graag'gladly', which, in colloquial speech, can only be used adverbially. Example (64b) shows that it satisfies the VP adverb test in (15).
a. | Jan gaat | graag | naar zijn werk. | |
Jan goes | gladly | to his work |
b. | Jan gaat | naar zijn werk | en | hij doet dat graag. | |
Jan goes | to his work | and | he does it gladly |
That graag is oriented towards the subject of the clause is clear from the fact illustrated in (65) that it requires that the subject be a +animate noun phrase.
a. | Onze kat | ligt | graag | op een plekje in de zon. | |
our cat | lies | gladly | on a spot in the sun | ||
'Our cat likes to lie on a spot in the sun.' |
b. | % | Het boek | ligt | graag | op de kast. |
the book | lies | gladly | on the shelve |
Although graag can be modified by an intensifier like erg'very', it does not have a regular comparative/superlative form. Instead, the comparative/superlative forms liever/het liefst in (66b&c) are used. Note that the positive degree (erg) lief cannot substitute for graag in (66a). The equative phrase even lief and the modified phrase net zo lief, on the other hand, can. This is shown in (66d).
a. | Ik | haal | Jan erg | graag/*lief | op. | |
I | fetch | Jan very | gladly | prt. | ||
'Iʼll fetch Jan gladly.' |
b. | * | Ik haal Jan grager/het graagst op. |
c. | Ik haal Jan liever/het liefst op. |
d. | Ik haal Jan even lief/net zo lief op. |
For completeness’ sake, note that the element graag can also be used as a discourse particle comparable to English please. This particle is placed in clause-final position, and preceded by an intonation break. This particle differs from the adverb in that it can neither be modified by the intensifier erg nor be replaced by liever, het liefst and even/net zo lief.
a. | Ik | wil | een kop koffie, | (*erg) | graag. | |
I | want | a cup of coffee | very | please |
b. | * | Ik wil een kop koffie, liever/het liefst. |
c. | * | Ik wil een kop koffie, even lief/net zo lief. |
The VP adverbs in the examples so far all occupy a position in the middle field of the clause. The examples in (68) show, however, that they may also be topicalized: (68a) involves a manner adverb, (68b) a time adverb, (68c) a frequency adverb, and (68d) a place adverb. Recall that (68c) is ambiguous in that vaak can also be interpreted as a clausal adverb.
a. | Jan voerde | de taak | nauwkeurig | uit. | |
Jan carried | the task | accurately | out |
a'. | Nauwkeurig voerde Jan de taak uit. |
b. | Marie gaat | vroeg | naar de kerk. | |
Marie goes | early | to the church |
b'. | Vroeg gaat Marie naar de kerk. |
c. | Marie gaat | vaak | naar de kerk. | |
Marie goes | often | to the church |
c'. | Vaak gaat Marie naar de kerk. |
d. | Het schip | loste | buitengaats | zijn afgewerkte olie. | |
the ship | discharged | offshore | its waste oil |
d'. | Buitengaats loste het schip zijn afgewerkte olie. |
If the clause contains a clausal adverb, the VP adverb must follow it; only the order in the primeless examples of (69) is possible. Place adverbs constitute an exception, however. As is shown in (69d), the place adverb buitengaats may either precede or follow the clausal adverb natuurlijk. This strongly suggests that the place adverbs can also be used as clausal adverbs, just like the adverbial phrase of time op zondag in example (33b). A problem with this suggestion is, however, that the place adverb does not seem to pass the test for clausal adverbs: ??Het was buitengaats zo dat het schip zijn afgewerkte olie loste.
a. | Jan voerde | de taak | natuurlijk | nauwkeurig | uit. | |
Jan carried | the task | of course | accurately | out |
a'. | * | Jan voerde de taak nauwkeurig natuurlijk uit. |
b. | Marie gaat | natuurlijk | vroeg | naar de kerk. | |
Marie goes | of course | early | to the church |
b'. | * | Marie gaat vroeg natuurlijk | naar de kerk. |
c. | Marie gaat natuurlijk | vaak | vroeg | naar de kerk. | |
Marie goes of course | often | early | to the church |
c'. | * | Marie gaat vaak natuurlijk vroeg naar de kerk. |
d. | Het schip | loste | natuurlijk | buitengaats | zijn afgewerkte olie. | |
the ship | discharged | of course | offshore | its waste oil |
d'. | Het schip loste buitengaats natuurlijk zijn afgewerkte olie. |
The order of the adverbs in (69) must be preserved under topicalization, that is, topicalization of VP adverbs is not possible if a clausal adverb is present. This is illustrated in (70). Given the acceptability of (69d'), it does not really come as a surprise that topicalization of buitengaats is possible if a clausal adverb is present.
a. | Natuurlijk voerde Jan de taak nauwkeurig uit. |
a'. | * | Nauwkeurig voerde Jan de taak natuurlijk uit. |
b. | Natuurlijk gaat Marie vroeg naar de kerk. |
b'. | * | Vroeg gaat Marie natuurlijk naar de kerk. |
c. | Natuurlijk gaat Marie vaak vroeg naar de kerk. |
c'. | * | Vaak gaat Marie natuurlijk vroeg naar de kerk. |
d. | Natuurlijk loste het schip buitengaats zijn afgewerkte olie. |
d'. | Buitengaats loste het schip natuurlijk zijn afgewerkte olie. |
The examples in (71) show, finally, that placement of a VP adverb in a position following the verb(s) in clause-final position is impossible, that is, VP adverbs do not allow extraposition.
a. | * | dat | Jan de taak | uit | voerde | nauwkeurig. |
that | Jan the task | out | carried | accurately |
b. | * | dat | Marie naar de kerk | gaat | vroeg. |
that | Marie to the church | goes | early |
c. | * | dat | Marie naar de kerk | gaat | vaak. |
that | Marie to the church | goes | often |
d. | * | dat | het schip | zijn afgewerkte olie | loste | buitengaats. |
that | the ship | its waste oil | discharged | offshore |
- 1969De bepaling van gesteldheidDe Nieuwe Taalgids6234-40