- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- Introduction to Frisian
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans Consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological Processes
- Phonotactics
- Segment inventory
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Introduction to Noun Phrases
- Introduction to Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution
- Predication
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Introduction to Verb Phrases
- Phonology
The prefix aarts- derives nouns from other nouns. Two types of derivations can be composed with the prefix. An example of the first type is biskopbishop > aartsbisskoparchbishop, where the derivation refers to a person with the highest ranking. An example of the second type is dogeneatscoundrel > aartsdogeneatarrant knave, where the derivation describes a person in a highly negative way.
The prefix aarts- takes nominal bases. It is pronounced as [a:ts]. The prefix comes from the Greek word archifirst, highest and is related to English arch- and Dutch aarts-. Two types of derivation can be distinguished.
In German and Dutch, the comparable prefix may also take adjectival bases, as for instance in Dutch aartsconservatiefvery conservative (< conservatiefconservative) or German erzdummvery stupid (< dummstupid). This is impossible in Frisian: *aartskonservatyf or *aartsdom. Instead, one must use an independent adverb for expressing a comparable high degree, preferably enforced with an emphatic ending -e, for example in ôfgryslike konservatyfvery conservative or grouwélige domvery stupid.
The prefix aarts- primarily takes bases denoting persons that have a certain, mostly higher, social function. The derivation then refers to the person within the group that has the highest ranking:
Base form | Derivation |
biskopbishop | aartsbiskoparchbishop |
hartochduke | aartshartocharchduke |
ingelangel | aartsingelarchangel |
fijânenemy | aartsfijânarch-enemy |
Furthermore, there is the word aartsfaderpatriarch or its variant aartsfaar, possibly a loan from Dutch since the common Frisian word for 'father' is heit; the older form fader, also shortened to faar, is now obsolete.
In this pattern, the stress is fully on the prefix, for example in AARTSbiskoparchbishop.
There is a second but related use of aarts- in which it can take a few bases that denote a person having a negatively valued property. Here, the prefix has an intensifying function. Examples are dogeneatrogue > aartsdogeneatarrant rogue or domkopblockhead > aartsdomkopreal blockhead. Here, the main stress is on the base, however with extra prominence on the prefix.
With respect to the second type, the prefix aarts-[a:ts] has been pronounced as earts-[ɪ.əts] for a certain length of time, along the lines of a regular phonological change in Frisian. The prefix became confused with the ordinal and adjective earst[ɪ.əst]first. A favourable circumstance was also that the stress in the derivation resembled the pattern found in a phrase consisting of an adjective followed by a noun. As a consequence, expressions like in earste(n) dogeneata real rogue or in earste(n) domkopa real dunce came into existence, with the inflectional suffix -e) or the emphatic suffix -en). The use of in earste(n)a real later extended to positive evaluations, for example in in earste(n) hurddravera firstclass runner, in earste(n) leafhawwer fan klassike muzyka serious fan of classical music, etcetera. One could possibly qualify this development as a case of degrammaticalization, where we see an affix developing into an independent word.
This topic is based on Hoekstra (1998:66) and Tamminga (1973:177-179), who documents the transition aart- > earts- > earst. This development was first noticed in Van Blom (1889:52).
This topic is based on Hoekstra (1998:66) and Tamminga (1973:177-179), who documents the transition aart- > earts- > earst. This development was first noticed in Van Blom (1889:52).
- Blom, Philippus van1889Beknopte friesche Spraakkunst voor den tegenwoordigen tijdLeeuwardenJ.W. Muller
- Hoekstra, Jarich1998Fryske wurdfoarmingLjouwertFryske Akademy
- Tamminga, Douwe Annes1973Op 'e taelhelling. Losse trochsneden fan Frysk taellibben. IIA.J. Osinga
- Dutch
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[81%] Dutch > Phonology > Accent & intonation
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[78%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonological processes
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[77%] Dutch > Phonology > Word stress > Stress in complex words > Stress shifts
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[82%] Frisian > Phonology > Orthography of Frisian
- The phonological domain of Final Devoicing
[82%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Final devoicing
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[81%] Frisian > Phonology > Clitics
- /d/-insertion in the sequences /nər/, /lər/, and /rər/
[81%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes
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[81%] Frisian > Phonology > Clitics
- The phonotactics of Afrikaans
[78%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonotactics
- r-deletion
[77%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes
- d-deletion
[77%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes > Consonant cluster simplification: Overview
- Nasalization
[77%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Vowel related processes
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[76%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes
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- Case - the partitive construction
[81%] Dutch > Morphology > Inflection > Nouns > Case
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[81%] Dutch > Morphology > Inflection
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[80%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Compounding
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[80%] Dutch > Morphology > Inflection > Pronouns
- -ing
[80%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Nouns > Nominal suffixes
- -DIM (diminutive)
[85%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Nominal suffixes > Noun as base
- In prenominal position
[85%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Adjectives
- âld-
[85%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Prefixation > Nominal prefixes > Noun as base
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[84%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Verbs
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[84%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Nouns
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[77%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Circumfixation
[74%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
[74%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
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[74%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation
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[73%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Dutch
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- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
[83%] Dutch > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations > 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 5.1.2.1. Proper nouns
[82%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns > 5.1. Articles > 5.1.2. Noun phrases without an article
- 2.2.1. Tests for distinguishing PP-complements from PP-adjuncts
[82%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation > 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
[82%] Dutch > Syntax > Adpositions and adpositional phrases > 1 Characteristics and classification > 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 5.2.3.2. Special cases
[82%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns > 5.2. Pronouns > 5.2.3. Demonstrative pronouns
- Restriction of the B-construction to modals
[82%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Expression of irrealis
- The adverb of manner & degree sa 'so' and negation
[80%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Negation
- Complete infinitival clause
[79%] Frisian > Syntax > Adjective Phrases > Modification and degree quantification > High degree specification > With infinitival clauses
- Visual perception
[78%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Evidentiality > Verbs of perception
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[78%] Frisian > Syntax > Adjective Phrases > Modification and degree quantification > High degree specification > With infinitival clauses
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[80%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Adjective Phrases
- Modification of the superlative
[80%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Adjective Phrases > Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree > Superlative
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[80%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Adjective Phrases > Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
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[80%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Complement clauses > Finite declarative complement clauses
