
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
There are three demonstrative pronouns in Afrikaans. The proximal demonstrative pronoun is hierdie this/these (1a) and the distal demonstrative pronoun is daardie that/those (1b). The short form dié this/these/that/those (1c) is often unspecified for distance.
a. | Volg net hierdie eenvoudige aanwysings om in te skakel. | ||||||||||||||
follow just these simple directions for.COMP in PTCL.INF tune.INF | |||||||||||||||
Just follow these simple directions to tune in. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
b. | Nou moet ons daardie nasie uitbou. | ||||||||||||||
now must.AUX.MOD we that nation out.build | |||||||||||||||
Now we should expand that nation. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO, adapted |
c. | Dié ontwikkelaars is gewoonlik munisipaliteite. | ||||||||||||||
these developers be.PRS usually municipalities | |||||||||||||||
These developers are usually municipalities. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
The demonstrative pronouns are often used attributively, as a determiner in a NP. In the literature, the demonstratives hierdie and dié are often lumped together as proximal demonstratives, with daardie being the distal demonstrative (De Stadler 1989:138). However, Kirsner (2014:45-46) makes a convincing argument that hierdie and dié should not be lumped together so easily. The hier here in hier+die does indicate proximity (as in 2a), and the daar there in daar+die indicates distance (as in 2b). The variant dié is, then, unspecified for distance (Kirsner 2014:48). In example (2c) it is used to specify a date that is clearly far removed, indicating that it does not necessarily refer to proximate entities. The reason why there is an impression that dié has a proximate connotation could be that speakers tend to talk about and refer to things that are close to them more often than things that are further away, so even though dié is not specified for distance, it would be used with reference to proximate entities more often than distant entities.
a. | Suid-Afrika kan nie hierdie verlies aan kundigheid bekostig nie. | ||||||||||||||
South-Africa can.AUX.MOD not this loss on expertise afford PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||
South African cannot afford this loss of expertise. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
b. | Op daardie tydstip word die beraming as akkuraat aanvaar. | ||||||||||||||
on that time.point be.AUX.PASS.PRS the estimation as accurate accept.PASS | |||||||||||||||
At that point in time the estimate is accepted as accurate. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
c. | Op dié tydstip, 1862, was Gereformeerde kerk Rustenburg, die eerste in die kerkverband, sowat drie jaar oud. | ||||||||||||||
on this time.point 1862 be.PRT Reformed church Rustenburg the first in the denomination about three years old | |||||||||||||||
At that point in time, 1862, the Reformed church Rustenburg, the first in the denomination, was about three years old. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
Apart from the standard forms in example (2), there are also more informal variants of the demonstratives. The variants of hierdie are typically just shortened spellings or spelling imitating pronunciation closely (3a-b), also present for daardie (3c). However, a more significantly shortened version of daardie is daai (3d), widely used in spoken language especially but also in more informal written language. Another informal variant is doerie (3e), analogical to daardie but with the first element doer being an informal locative adverb referring to a location that is particularly far away.
a. | Jy moet hierie outjie drie keer kyk. | ||||||||||||||
you.SG must.AUX.MOD this guy.DIM three times watch | |||||||||||||||
You should watch this one three times. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
b. | Hierrie mense glo mos in spoke, jong. | ||||||||||||||
these humans believe surely in ghosts young | |||||||||||||||
These people believe in ghosts, you know. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
c. | Bring vir my darie langwerpige doos. | ||||||||||||||
bring for me that oblong box | |||||||||||||||
Bring me that oblong box. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
d. | Het u daai skietery gesien? | ||||||||||||||
have.AUX you.HON that shooting see.PST | |||||||||||||||
Did you see that shooting? | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
e. | Doerie tyd was daar besluit ons gaan soggens vroeër inval. | ||||||||||||||
that time be.AUX.PASS.PRT there decide.PASS we go mornings earlier in.fall | |||||||||||||||
That time it was decided that we will fall in earlier in the morning. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
The variant daai is occasionally used in compounds, such as daaikant that side. In (4) it is used alongside the compound diékant this side, illustrating that while dié is not necessarily specified for proximity, it is indeed sometimes used with the implication of proximity, especially when contrasted with daardie or daai.
Die meeu draai sy kop nou diékant toe, nou daaikant toe. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
the gull turn his head now this.side to now that.side to | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The seagull turns his head first to this side, then to that side. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
There are two types of indepent use of demonstrative pronouns in Afrikaans. The one, uncontroversial use includes anaphoric reference to something that appears earlier in the sentence, with a specifying function, such as (5a-c).
a. | Dis 'n goeie plek hierdie, meneer. | ||||||||||||||
it.is a good place this mister | |||||||||||||||
It's a good place here, sir. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
b. | Dit sou noord wees daardie. | ||||||||||||||
it want.to.AUX.MOD.PRT north be.INF that | |||||||||||||||
That would be north. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
c. | Lof soos dié is vir ons 'n groot eer. | ||||||||||||||
praise like this be.PRS for us a great honour | |||||||||||||||
Praise like this is a great honour for us. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
The other independent use of demonstratives is with purely deictic reference, without a noun or NP – not functioning as a determiner or modifier in any way. While this use of dié (6a) is uncontroversial, it is discouraged with hierdie and daardie in some prescriptive sources (Carstens 2018). However, this usage still widely occurs in Afrikaans data (6b-c). In fact, the independent use of demonstratives is so well established that it is used similarly to nouns, for instance as plurals (6d-f).
a. | Dié is nie terugwerkbeurse nie. | ||||||||||||||
these be.PRS not back.work.bursaries PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||
These are not bursaries that you have to work back. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO, adapted |
b. | Hierdie moet seker 'n groot skok vir jou wees. | ||||||||||||||
this must probably a big shock for you.SG be.INF | |||||||||||||||
This must.AUX.MOD be a big shock for you. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
c. | Wat is daardie, Koos? | ||||||||||||||
what be.PRS that Koos | |||||||||||||||
What is that, Koos? | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
d. | Sy het gedreig sy gaan nie weer vir hom skoene gee as hy diés ook verloor nie. | ||||||||||||||
she have.AUX threat.PST she go not again for him shoes give if he these also lose PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||
She threatened that she will not give him shoes again if he loses these. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
e. | Hulle is groter as hierdies. | ||||||||||||||
they be.PRS bigger PTCL.SIMT these | |||||||||||||||
They are bigger than these. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
f. | Kan ek na daardies kyk, asseblief? | ||||||||||||||
can.AUX.MOD I at those look please | |||||||||||||||
Can I look at those, please? | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
The informal variants of the demonstratives are used in the independent senses as well, illustrated in (7).
a. | Sanet, het jy hierie gelees? | ||||||||||||||
Sanet have.AUX you.SG this read.PST | |||||||||||||||
Sanet, did you read this? | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
b. | Hieries met die plat wolblaar maak so 'n blouvaal blommetjie. | ||||||||||||||
these with the flat wool.leaf make such a blue.pale flower.DIM | |||||||||||||||
These with the flat wool leaf make a small pale blue flower. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO, adapted |
c. | Jirre bra, ek dink daai is 'n 2012 Ford Mustang Shelby GT350? | ||||||||||||||
lord bro I think that be.PRS a 2012 Ford Mustang Shelby GT350 | |||||||||||||||
Lord bro, I think that's a 2012 Ford Mustang Shelby GT350? | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
d. | Ek het mos nie van daais nie. | ||||||||||||||
I have surely not of those PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||
I don't have any of those. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
e. | Wie onthou nog die retro, ongeglasuurde, teracotta-kasserolle waarin veral hoenders met groot fanfare in die 1970's gaargemaak is, doeries wat jy eers 'n halfuur in water moes lê? | ||||||||||||||
who remember still the retro unglazed teracotta-pots REL.in especially chickens with great fanfare in the 1970s cook.PASS be.AUX.PASS.PST those that.REL you.SG first a half.hour in water must.AUX.MOD.PRT lie | |||||||||||||||
Who still remembers the retro, unglazed teracotta pots used to cook especially chickens in the 1970s, those that you had to put in water for half an hour first? | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
- Carstens, W.A.M2018Norme vir Afrikaans: enkele riglyne by die gebruik van AfrikaansPretoria: Van Schaik
- De Stadler, L.G1989Afrikaanse semantiek.Southern Boekuitgewers
- Kirsner, R.S2014Qualitative-Quantitative Analyses of Dutch and Afrikaans grammar and lexicon.ReeksJohn Benjamins Publishing Company
- Kirsner, R.S2014Qualitative-Quantitative Analyses of Dutch and Afrikaans grammar and lexicon.ReeksJohn Benjamins Publishing Company
