- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- Introduction to Frisian
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans Consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological Processes
- Phonotactics
- Segment inventory
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Introduction to Noun Phrases
- Introduction to Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution
- Predication
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Introduction to Verb Phrases
- Phonology
Because a word-internal sequence of two liquids violates the Sonority Sequencing Constraint (see onset: complex onsets), liquids are not expected to be able to form a sequence. They seem to do so, however, in the word-final sequence /-rl/, which is the subject of this topic. It begins with an overview of the words in which this sequence occurs. There appears to be evidence for the assumption that words in -rl end in //-rəl/ in underlying representation: 1) /r/ should have been deleted preceding the coronal liquid /l/, but it has not (as if both consonants were separated by a vowel), 2) words ending in -rl have a variant ending in -rel (but not the other way around), 3) verbs with a stem in -rl invariably belong to the second weak conjugational class (as do verbs with a stem ending schwa + sonorant consonant), 4) words ending in -rl may be realized with final [l̩] (the syllabic nature of which points to a form ending in //-rəl/), 5) nouns in -rl invariably have plural forms in /-s/ (which is the normal case for nouns ending in /-əl/). The sequence -rl therefore does not seem to have any reality beyond the purely orthographic. All these types of evidence will be given a full treatment.
Because a word-internal sequence of two liquids violates the Sonority Sequencing Constraint (see onset: complex onsets), liquids are not expected to be able to form a sequence. However, they seem to do so as /-rl/, in all and only the following words:
Words ending in the sequence -<rl> | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
wa(a)rl/wa(a)rle | /va:rl(ə)/ | catch, (door, window) fastener | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
dwarl | /dwarl/ | twist, coil (in hair, wood) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
kerl | /kɛrl/ | granule, grain | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
kjirl | /kjɪrl/ | (big) fellow, (big) guy | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
tsjerl | /tsjɛrl/ | (big) fellow, (big) guy | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
tsjirl | /tsjɪrl/ | (big) fellow, (big) guy | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
gurl(e) | /ɡørl(ə)/ | belt | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
wilewarl | /viləvarl/ | fickle, volatile person; cowl, turn-cap | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
nirle | /nɪrlə/ | needle | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
hoarl(e) | /vwarl(ə)/ | gust (of wind); disturbance, (street) row | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
dw{a/e/i}rlje | /dw{a/ɛ/ɪ}/rl/ | to whirl, to swirl | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
guorlje | /ɡworl/ | to gargle | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
hoarlje | /vwarl/ | to gust | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
skarlebarl(je) | /skarləbarl/ | to stumble along (on skates) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
wigewarlje/wilewarlje | /vi{ɣ/l}əvarl/ | to sway, to wobble |
Since /r/ precedes the coronal liquid /l/ in the sequence /-rl/ it should have been deleted, but it has not. This means that /r/ and /l/ cannot have been adjacent at the time the historical phonological process of /r/-deletion was operative (see /r/-deletion in simplex words).
For some speakers − though this might also be a dialectal matter − /r/ has been deleted in the words waarl, kerl and gurl, which then have the underlying representations /va:l/, /kɛl/, and /ɡøl/. The point is that in underived native words /r/ was not systematically deleted when preceding /l/, as it was, for instance, when preceding /s/ and /t/.
Assuming the words ending in -<rl> to have final /-rəl/ in their underlying representation enables one to arrive at an insightful analysis. There are four pieces of independent evidence for this particular underlying representation (which partly equal those for underlying representations ending in /-{l/r}əm/ for words ending in -{l/r}m, see word-final sequences of a liquid and a nasal).
In the first place, the great majority of the forms ending in -rl have a variant ending in -rel, see the table below:
Ending in -rl | Ending in -rel |
wa(a)rl/wa(a)rle | warrel |
dwarl | dwarrel |
kerl | kerrel |
kjirl | kear(d)el |
gurl(e) | gurdel |
wilewarl | wilewarrel |
nirle | niddel |
hoarl(e) | hoarrel |
dw{a/e/i}rlje | dw{a/e/i}rrelje |
guorlje | guorrelje |
hoarlje | hoarrelje |
skarlebarl(je) | skarrel(je) |
wigewarlje/wilewarlje | warrelje |
The other way around, not all words ending in -rel have a variant ending in -rl.
Secondly, the five verbs at the end of the table above belong to the second weak class, which receives a principled explanation when they are assumed to end in /-rəl/ (see the Weak II Generalization).
Thirdly, /-l/ may be realized as syllabic, which presupposes the presence of schwa (see distributional evidence that syllabic consonants derive from /ə/ + consonant). Since /l/ in /-rl/ cannot be syllabified in a regular way, the insertion of schwa might be considered a last resort for /l/'s syllabification. This would then be the only instance in Frisian where insertion has this function. Normally, schwa-insertion has the function of facilitating the realisation of a heterorganic tautosyllabic consonant sequence (see schwa insertion (in general)). This renders obligatory schwa-insertion in this particular case highly suspect. Assuming schwa to be part of the underlying representations of the words at hand is, a well-motivated alternative.
Fourthly, pluralization provides us with an indication concerning the underlying representation of the words ending in -rl. The plural ending -s (/-s/) is chosen after words ending in /-əl/, as in leppels/lɛpəl+s/spoons, whereas it is -en (/-ən/) after words in /-l/, for example mielen/miəl+ən/meals. The nouns in Words ending in the sequence -rl all have a plural in -s. This is easily explained by assuming them to end in /-rəl/ in underlying representation (see regular plural formation).
As noted above, for some speakers and/or in some dialects, /r/ never shows up in whatever form of these words, hence it may be assumed to be absent altogether. If waarlcatch, (door, window) fastener, kerlgranule, grain and gurlbelt have the underlying representations /va:l/, /kɛl/, and /ɡøl/, their plurals are expected to be waarlen/va:l+ən/[va:ln], kerlen/kɛl+ən/[kɛln] and gurlen/ɡøl+ən/[ɡøln], respectively, which is borne out by the facts.
With the analysis put forward in this topic then -rl does not have any reality beyond the purely orthographic.
- Dutch
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- /n/-deletion
[79%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonological processes
- Phonotactics at the word level
[77%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonotactics
- Phonological processes in casual speech
[76%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonological processes
- The spelling of vowels
[76%] Dutch > Phonology > Spelling
- Schwa epenthesis and schwa deletion
[76%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonological processes
- Word-final sequences of a liquid and a nasal
[87%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonotactics > Codas > Two consonants
- /r/-deletion in simplex words
[85%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes > /r/-deletion
- Words ending in /-{l/r}m/ and /-{l/r}əm/
[85%] Frisian > Phonology > Allomorphy
- Words with a non-coronal as final segment of a four-positional final sequence
[82%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonotactics > Codas > 4-5 positions
- Schwa deletion as a synchronic process: how to deal with lapses
[82%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Schwa deletion
- d-deletion
[81%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes > Consonant cluster simplification: Overview
- Nasal assimilation
[79%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes
- Rhotacism
[78%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes
- Final devoicing
[77%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes
- r-deletion
[76%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes
- Dutch
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- Nominal suffixation: diminutives
[76%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Nouns > Nominal suffixes
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[76%] Dutch > Morphology > Inflection
- Case - the partitive construction
[76%] Dutch > Morphology > Inflection > Nouns > Case
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[76%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Nouns > Nominal suffixes
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[75%] Dutch > Morphology > Inflection > Pronouns
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[81%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Adjectives
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[81%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Nouns
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[80%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Nominal suffixes > Noun as base
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[80%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Verbs
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[80%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Numerals
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[72%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
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[72%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
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[69%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
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[68%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation
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[80%] Dutch > Syntax > Adjectives and Adjective Phrases > 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
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[80%] Dutch > Syntax > Adjectives and Adjective Phrases > 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase > 5.1. Inflection
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[80%] Dutch > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > 1 Characterization and classification
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[79%] Dutch > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses > 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses > 5.2.3. Bare infinitivals
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[79%] Dutch > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations > 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
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[76%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Expression of irrealis
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[74%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Negation
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[77%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Alternations > Alternations involving the external argument
