- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- Introduction to Frisian
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans Consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological Processes
- Phonotactics
- Segment inventory
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Introduction to Noun Phrases
- Introduction to Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution
- Predication
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Introduction to Verb Phrases
- Phonology
The four verbs of body posture are: sittesit, steanstand, lizzelie and hingjehang. The copula bliuwe stay shares with geango the property that it combines with a restricted set of bare infinitives, namely the four verbs of body posture. An example is given below:
Op 'e Harm Harkesparren nei, dy't Oktober ta út wol hingjen bliuwe koene |
on the Harm Harkes.pears to which october to out DcP hang stay could |
Except for the Harm Harkes pears, which could remain hanging on the tree until november |
The copula bliuwestay combines with a restricted set of bare infinitives, namely the four verbs of body posture and occasionally with a few verbs expressing a locational aspect, more specifically permanence of location, such as stykjenstick and wenjenlive. Below are two examples in which the complement is headed by a verb of body posture:
a. | Do kinst noch bêst wat sitten bliuwe om in pantsjefol tee | ||||||||||||||
you can DcP easily a.bit sit.GI stay foar a cupful tea | |||||||||||||||
You can stay sitting here a bit longer for a cup of tea |
b. | Mar ien sa'n Grienlânsk baaske bleau stean | ||||||||||||||
but one such.a Greenlandic lad stayed stand | |||||||||||||||
But one such a Greenlandic lad stopped running |
Below we present two examples in which the complement is headed by a locational verb:
a. | In staak fan it laach bleau wenjen op 'e âlde Holdinga State ûnder Eanjum | ||||||||||||||
a branch of the lineage stayed living at the old Holdinga manor below Eangjum | |||||||||||||||
A branch of the lineage continued to live at the ancient Holdinga manor south of Eangjum |
b. | Ik trape troch oant ik yn de snie stykjen bleau | ||||||||||||||
I walked through until I in the snow stick stayed | |||||||||||||||
I kept walking until I got stuck in the snow |
The bare infinitive takes the form of a gerund. An ordinary infinitive is not allowed:
*In staak fan it laach bleau wenje op 'e âlde Holdinga State ûnder Eanjum |
a branch of the lineage stayed living.OI at the old Holdinga manor below Eangjum |
Members of a branch of the lineage continued to live at the ancient Holdinga manor south of Eangjum |
The copula bliuwestay is still grounded in a locative interpretation, although it may acquire an overtone of durative aspect. Its locative interpretation correlates with its selectional restrictions, although it is not clear how exactly. Bliuwestay also combines with some verbs which have been derived morphologically from the verbs of body posture mentioned above:
De kâns op in buike bliuwt bestean |
the chance of a shower stays exist |
There is still the possibility of a shower |
Other bare infinitives cannot be directly combined with this locational durative verb. In this respect, Standard Frisian differs from Standard Dutch. The following are ungrammatical in Standard Frisian (but grammatical in Interference Frisian, informal Frisian, and in Dutch):
a. | *It bliuwt mar reinen | ||||||||||||||
it stays DcP rain | |||||||||||||||
It keeps on raining |
b. | *Hy bleau God oanroppen, sels doe't er rekke waard fan in kûgel | ||||||||||||||
he stayed God out.call even when he hit was by a bullet | |||||||||||||||
He did not stop invoking God, even when he was hit by a bullet |
A different idiom must be used in case the meaning of the sentence above is to be expressed in a grammatical form. Such a different idiom may involve the durative particle trochthrough, often accompanied by the discourse particle marbut:
It reint mar troch |
it rains DcP through |
It just keeps on raining |
The meaning contribution of marbut is notoriously difficult to put into words, let alone to formalise it. It seems to express a high degree reading, as well as emotional involvement on the part of the speaker, usually negative such as disapproval, irony or sarcasm. If it is left out, the sentence has the feel of an unemotional factual statement.
A durative interpretation can also be effected by negating a verb of cessation, as in the following:
Ik hold net op fan draven |
I kept not up of running |
I did not stop running |
Apart from the four verbs of body posture, the copula of staying also combines with infinitives consisting of a particle of approach such as oanto and a verb of manner of motion such as rinnewalk. An example is given below:
De twa oaren bleauwen efter my oan rinnen |
the two others stayed behind me P walk |
The other two continued to follow me |
Such examples seem to be chiefly found in recent literature. The example in (9) is from 1977. Normally, it is kommecome which selects bare infinitives consisting of a particle of approach and a verb of manner of motion see kommecome. So it seems that bliuwestay has come to accept bare infinitives which otherwise only combine with the verb of coming. This small widening of selection restrictions may be caused by pressure from Dutch, which allows the verb of staying to combine with all sorts of verbs. On the other hand, the extension itself is a natural class occurring elsewhere in the grammar of Frisian.
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Intonation
[79%] Dutch > Phonology > Accent & intonation
- Stem allomorphy
[78%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonology-morphology interface > Allomorphy
- Acoustic correlates of stress
[78%] Dutch > Phonology > Accent & intonation
- The spelling of linking elements in compounds
[77%] Dutch > Phonology > Spelling
- Articulatory correlates of stress
[76%] Dutch > Phonology > Accent & intonation
- Cliticization
[81%] Frisian > Phonology > Clitics
- Orthography
[81%] Frisian > Phonology > Orthography of Frisian
- Schwa deletion as a synchronic process: how to deal with lapses
[80%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Schwa deletion
- Phonological evidence for cliticization
[80%] Frisian > Phonology > Clitics
- The phonological domain of Final Devoicing
[80%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Final devoicing
- Nasalization
[80%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Vowel related processes
- Rhotacism
[79%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes
- r-deletion
[79%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
[78%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Segment inventory > Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The phonotactics of Afrikaans
[77%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonotactics
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Conversion
[83%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
[82%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Compounding
- Nominal suffixation: diminutives
[80%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Nouns > Nominal suffixes
- Phrase-based compounds
[79%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Compounding
- Synthetic compounds
[79%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Compounding
- Weak verbs
[83%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Verbs
- General categories
[82%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Verbs
- Strong and other irregular verbs
[81%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Verbs
- -DIM (diminutive)
[81%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Nominal suffixes > Noun as base
- ûnt-
[81%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Prefixation > Verbal prefixes > Verb as base
- Inputs and input restrictions
[78%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Prefixation
[77%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Affixation
[76%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation
- Meaning of affixes
[74%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Non-native affixes
[73%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Introduction
[83%] Dutch > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1.3.1.3. Ing-nominalization
[83%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 1 Characterization and classification > 1.3. Derivation of nouns > 1.3.1. Deverbal nouns
- 1.3.1.4. Ge-nominalization
[82%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 1 Characterization and classification > 1.3. Derivation of nouns > 1.3.1. Deverbal nouns
- Preface and acknowledgments
[82%] Dutch > Syntax > Preface and acknowledgements
- 3.1. Main types
[82%] Dutch > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Selecting a bare infinitive
[88%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Predication and noun incorporation > Komme 'come'
- Selecting a bare infinitive
[88%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Predication and noun incorporation > Gean 'go'
- Combining with to-infinitives
[85%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Predication and noun incorporation > Copulas
- Verbs and Verb Phrases in Frisian
[84%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Choice of copula with inanimate subjects
[83%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Predication and noun incorporation > Copulas
- Mood
[81%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Characterization and classification
- Finite declarative complement clauses: construction forms
[80%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Complement clauses > Finite declarative complement clauses
- Complementive constructions
[80%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Adjective Phrases > Predication
- Semantic characterisation
[80%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Characterization and classification > Introduction
- Finite declarative complement clauses: lexical and semantic associations
[79%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Complement clauses > Finite declarative complement clauses
