- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
Independent possessive pronouns are those used predicatively or postnominally. In terms of form there is a clear distinction between singular and plural independent possessive pronouns. Singulars are expressed as single words, whether first person (1a), second person (1b), or third person (1c-d). Plural independent possessive pronouns are phrasal, with the personal pronoun form and the possessive particle s'n, also for first (1e), second (1f) and third person (1g).
| a. | Maar nou is jy myne, net myne. | ||||||||||||||
| but now be.PRS you.SG mine just mine | |||||||||||||||
| But now you are mine, just mine. | |||||||||||||||
| VivA-KPO | |||||||||||||||
| b. | Maak seker dat jy joune betyds kry! | ||||||||||||||
| make sure that.COMP you.SG yours.SG on.time get | |||||||||||||||
| Ensure that you receive yours on time. | |||||||||||||||
| VivA-KPO | |||||||||||||||
| c. | Met 'n stem soos syne kan 'n mens Seal enigiets vergewe... | ||||||||||||||
| with a voice like his can.AUX.MOD a human Seal anything forgive | |||||||||||||||
| With a voice like his, one can forgive Seal enything... | |||||||||||||||
| VivA-KPO, adapted | |||||||||||||||
| d. | Maar Grobbies het skaars die som op die bord geskryf vir die blitsbrein-toets, of Jessie is klaar met hare. | ||||||||||||||
| but Grobbies have.AUX the sum on the board write.PST for the swift.brain-test or Jessie be.PRS finished with hers | |||||||||||||||
| But Grobbies barely finished writing the sum on the board, and already Jessie was finished with hers. | |||||||||||||||
| VivA-KPO | |||||||||||||||
| e. | Nou is die uitdaging ons s'n. | ||||||||||||||
| now be.PRS the challenge our PTCL.GEN | |||||||||||||||
| Now the challenge is ours. | |||||||||||||||
| VivA-KPO | |||||||||||||||
| f. | Ek sal julle s'n ook saambring. | ||||||||||||||
| I will.AUX.MODyour.PL PTCL.GEN also along.bring | |||||||||||||||
| I will bring yours along as well. | |||||||||||||||
| VivA-KPO | |||||||||||||||
| g. | Elke dieet dink hulle s'n is die wenformule. | ||||||||||||||
| every diet think their PTCL.GEN be.PRS the win.formula | |||||||||||||||
| Every diet thinks theirs is the winning formula. | |||||||||||||||
| VivA-KPO | |||||||||||||||
The singular independent possessive pronouns are based on the attributive forms, with the suffix -(n)e added: myne mine, joune yours, hare hers and syne his. The use of each of these are illustrated in (2) with one or more examples of each. The second person examples illustrate specific contexts of use, such as (2b) where the phrase jy en joune you and yours have the implied reference to people associated with the addressee, and (2c) where the independent possessive pronoun is used in a possessive construction with the particle se. The singular second person independent possessive pronoun also has an archaic form joue, used primarily in religious contexts, illustrated in (2f).
| a. | Maar die besluit is nie myne om te maak nie. | ||||||||||||||
| but the decision be.PRS not mine for.COMP to make PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||
| But the decision is not mine to make. | |||||||||||||||
| VivA-KPO | |||||||||||||||
| b. | Maar toe het jy en joune vir ons voorgeskryf... | ||||||||||||||
| but then have.AUX you.SG and yours.SG to us prescribe | |||||||||||||||
| But then you and yours precribed us... | |||||||||||||||
| VivA-KPO | |||||||||||||||
| c. | Wat is joune se naam? | ||||||||||||||
| what be.PRS yours.SG PTCL.GEN name | |||||||||||||||
| What is yours' name? | |||||||||||||||
| VivA-KPO | |||||||||||||||
| d. | My waentjie het meer goed as hare in en ek voel skoon skuldig. | ||||||||||||||
| my wagon.DIM have more stuff than hers in and I feel clean guilty | |||||||||||||||
| My cart contains more things than hers and I feel quite guilty. | |||||||||||||||
| VivA-KPO | |||||||||||||||
| e. | Hy reken die plaas is syne. | ||||||||||||||
| hy reckon the farm be.PRS his | |||||||||||||||
| He reckons the farm is his. | |||||||||||||||
| VivA-KPO | |||||||||||||||
| f. | Wees gerus, sy is joue. | ||||||||||||||
| be at.ease she be.PRS yours.SG | |||||||||||||||
| Do not worry, she is yours. | |||||||||||||||
| VivA-KPO | |||||||||||||||
There is one form that is used differently, and for a different purpose than the other pronouns discussed in this section. The honorific second person pronoun u has an independent form uwe. However, this form is fairly archaic, and only used in two specific contexts. The one context is in the greeting at the end of a formal letter, similar to English "Yours". The other context is when the speaker refers to themselves, similar to "yours truly", sometimes with a playful connotation (3a), but sometimes such a playful intention is not necessarily clear (3b).
| a. | Hierdie man wat die uwe is, gaan hiervandaan Land-Rover ry, grougate of nie. | ||||||||||||||
| this man that the yours.HON be.PRS go here.fom Land-Rover ride dig.holes or not | |||||||||||||||
| This man yours truly, will be driving Land Rover from now on, dug holes or not. | |||||||||||||||
| VivA-KPO | |||||||||||||||
| b. | Metgesel bestel die 'chicken ala king' en die uwe besluit op die een met gegeurde maalvleis. | ||||||||||||||
| companion order the chicken ala king and the yours.HON decide on the one with spiced mince.meat | |||||||||||||||
| Companion orders the 'chicken ala king' and yours truly decides on the one with spiced mince. | |||||||||||||||
| VivA-KPO | |||||||||||||||
In other, more usual contexts, the honorific u is used similarly to the plural independent possessive pronouns, illustrated below.
The plural possessive pronouns are used in a periphrastic construction when used independently. The possessive particle used is s'n, although there are other, typically more informal, forms such as s'ne (4b), s'nne (5b below) and sinne (4f) (the spelling typically used for sinne sentences / senses). The associative construction with -hulle is also used in this way (4g).
| a. | Mense maak graag hulle probleme, foute en gemors ons s'n. | ||||||||||||||
| people make gladly their problems mistakes and mess ours PTCL.GEN | |||||||||||||||
| People like to make their problems, mistakes and messes ours. | |||||||||||||||
| VivA-KPO | |||||||||||||||
| b. | "Ons s'ne," kom dit van die ander dogtertjie. | ||||||||||||||
| ours PTCL.GEN come it from the other girl.DIM | |||||||||||||||
| "Ours," it comes from the other girl. | |||||||||||||||
| VivA-KPO | |||||||||||||||
| c. | Maak daarmee wat julle wil, dis alles julle s'n. | ||||||||||||||
| make PN.with what you.PL want it.is all yours.PL PTCL.GEN | |||||||||||||||
| Do with it what you want, it is all yours. | |||||||||||||||
| VivA-KPO | |||||||||||||||
| d. | Maar ook nie myne of u s'n nie. | ||||||||||||||
| but also not mine or yours.HON PTCL.GEN PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||
| But also not mine or yours. | |||||||||||||||
| VivA-KPO | |||||||||||||||
| e. | My roman is dus nie op hulle s'n geskoei nie. | ||||||||||||||
| my novel be.AUX.PASS.PST then not on theirs PTCL.NEG model.PASS.PTCP PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||
| My novel is, then, not modeled on theirs. | |||||||||||||||
| VivA-KPO, adapted | |||||||||||||||
| f. | ...hulself ontstel oor die opinies wat nie soos hulle sinne is nie... | ||||||||||||||
| themselves upset about the opnions that not like theirs PTCL.GEN be.PRS PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||
| ...upset themselves about the opinions that are not like theirs... | |||||||||||||||
| VivA-KPO | |||||||||||||||
| g. | Daar was nog te veel karre by jou ma-hulle s'n. | ||||||||||||||
| there be.PST still too many cars with your mom-them PTCL.GEN | |||||||||||||||
| There were still too many cars with your parents'. | |||||||||||||||
| VivA-KPO | |||||||||||||||
Other types of pronouns are also used with the possessive particle to form possessive constructions. This includes indefinite pronouns (5a), relative pronouns (5b), reciprocal pronouns (5c) and others.
| a. | Dit kan enige iemand s'n wees. | ||||||||||||||
| it can.AUX.MOD any someone PTCL.GEN be.INF | |||||||||||||||
| It can by anybody's. | |||||||||||||||
| VivA-KPO | |||||||||||||||
| b. | Wie s'nne is die trap-goed nou? | ||||||||||||||
| who PTCL.GEN be.PRS the step-stuff now | |||||||||||||||
| Who's is the step stuff now? | |||||||||||||||
| VivA-KPO | |||||||||||||||
| c. | Martie kyk vir my en laat haar kop op my skouer sak en so sit ons met ons hande in mekaar s'n... | ||||||||||||||
| Martie look at me and let her head on my shoulder down and so sit we with our hands in each.other PTCL.GEN | |||||||||||||||
| Martie looks at me and rests her head on my shoulder and we sit like this with our hands in each others'... | |||||||||||||||
| VivA-KPO | |||||||||||||||
This possessive particle is used in other independent possessive constructions as well, such as with proper nouns (6a-b) and shorter and longer NPs (6c-e).
| a. | My eie vrou, soos Kassie s'n, het gaan marsjeer. | ||||||||||||||
| my own wife like Kassie PTCL.GEN have.AUX go march | |||||||||||||||
| My own wife, like Kassie's, marched. | |||||||||||||||
| VivA-KPO | |||||||||||||||
| b. | Karina sit haar hand oor Talana s'n. | ||||||||||||||
| Karina put her hand over Talana PTCL.GEN | |||||||||||||||
| Karina puts her hand over Talana's. | |||||||||||||||
| VivA-KPO | |||||||||||||||
| c. | 'n Kat se geheue is ook beter as 'n hond s'n. | ||||||||||||||
| a cat PTCL.GEN memory be.PRS also better than a dog PTCL.GEN | |||||||||||||||
| A cat's memory is also better than a dog's. | |||||||||||||||
| VivA-KPO | |||||||||||||||
| d. | Maar in dieselfde asem (tegelykertyd) bevestig lig donkerte se kwaliteit, en donkerte bevestig lig s'n. | ||||||||||||||
| but in same breath (same.time) confirm light darkenss PTCL.GEN quality and darkness confirm light PTCL.GEN | |||||||||||||||
| But in the same breath (at the same time) light confirms darkness's quality, and darkness confirms light's. | |||||||||||||||
| VivA-KPO | |||||||||||||||
| e. | Myra Groenewald se oë is dieselfde ysblou as haar seun s'n. | ||||||||||||||
| Myra Groenewald PTCL.GEN eyes be.PRS same ice.blue as her son PTCL.GEN | |||||||||||||||
| Myra Groenewald's eyes are the same ice blue as her son's. | |||||||||||||||
| VivA-KPO | |||||||||||||||
