
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
Relative pronouns are those pronouns that introduce a relative clause. In Afrikaans the relative pronoun wat that/what is used for general reference (1a), and wie who is used to refer to people in certain constructions (1b). There are also adverbial relative clauses – waar where is used for place (1c) and wanneer when is used for time (1d). Relative waar where is further used in compounds with prepositions (1e-f).
a. | Ek wil weet wat daar aangaan. | ||||||||||||||
I want.to.AUX.MOD know that.REL there on.go | |||||||||||||||
I want to know what is going on there. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
b. | Dit is wie ek is. | ||||||||||||||
it be.PRS who.REL I be.PRS | |||||||||||||||
It is who I am. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
c. | Gee 'n telefoonnommer waar jy bereik kan word, as jy een het. | ||||||||||||||
give a telephone.number where.REL you.SG reach.PASS can become.AUX.PASS.PRS if you.SG one have | |||||||||||||||
Provide a telephone number where you can be reached, if you have one. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
d. | Skakel ligte af wanneer jy 'n kamer verlaat. | ||||||||||||||
switch lights off when.REL you.SG a room leave | |||||||||||||||
Switch off lights when you leave a room. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
e. | 'n Keur van rame is beskikbaar waaruit lede kan kies. | ||||||||||||||
a selection of frames be.PRS available REL.out members can.AUX.MOD choose | |||||||||||||||
A selection of frames is available, that members can choose from. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
f. | Daar is baie waaroor ons kan feesvier. | ||||||||||||||
there be.PRS much REL.over we can.AUX.MOD celebrate | |||||||||||||||
There is a lot that we can celebrate about. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
Relative pronouns are used to introduce relative clauses in a sentence. When a relative construction is used referentially, the antecedent and the relative pronoun form an anaphoric chain, where the relative pronoun links the relative clause with the antecedent (Ponelis 1979:463). This use is illustrated in (2a-b). The relative pronoun wie who, used with reference to people, can also form part of a prepositional complement (2c). While this use is not always accepted, relative wie is sometimes used without being part of a genitive construction (2b) or PP (2c-d), in a construction similar to those with wat, only referring specifically to people (2e).
a. | Dit is 'n bedryf wat 90% uitvoergerig is. | ||||||||||||||
it be.PRS a industry that.REL 90% export.aimed be.PRS | |||||||||||||||
It is an industry that is aimed 90% at exportation. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
b. | Liam Neeson is 'n koel ou ballie wie se vuiste as smoelneukers gebruik word. | ||||||||||||||
Liam Neeson be.PRS a cool old guy who.REL PTCL.GEN fists as face.hitters use.PASS become.AUX.PASS.PRS | |||||||||||||||
Liam Neeson is a cool guy whose fists are used as face punchers. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
c. | Lesers, onder wie predikante, het skerp hierop gereageer. | ||||||||||||||
readers under who.REL ministers have.AUX sharp PN.on react.PST | |||||||||||||||
Readers, among which ministers, reacted sharply to this. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
d. | Die meeste mense sal weet van wie ons praat. | ||||||||||||||
the most people will.AUX.MOD know of who.REL we speak | |||||||||||||||
Most people will know who we are talking about. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO, adapted |
e. | Enige verbruiker wie eie reg gebruik om meters wat toegemaak is self oop te maak... | ||||||||||||||
any consumer who.REL own right use for.COMP meters that.REL close.make.PASS be.AUX.PASS.PST self open PTCL.INF make.INF | |||||||||||||||
Any consumer who uses own right to open meters that are closed... | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
There are also free relative constructions, without explicit antecedents, although it is implied. The relative wie in this case means more or less "everyone / someone who" (3a-b) and wat means more or less "that which" or "what" (3c-d) (Ponelis 1979:463).
a. | Wie nie waag nie, sal nie wen nie. | ||||||||||||||
who.REL not dare PTCL.NEG will.AUX.MOD not win PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||
Those who do not dare, will not win. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
b. | Maar wie volhard tot die einde toe, sal gered word. | ||||||||||||||
but who.REL persist until the end to will save.PASS become.AUX.PASS.PRS | |||||||||||||||
But those who persist until the end, will be saved. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO, adapted |
c. | Wat ons nodig het is 'n morele herlewing waartoe elke individu homself verbind. | ||||||||||||||
what.REL we need have.PRS be.PRS a moral revival REL.to each individual himself commit | |||||||||||||||
What we need is a moral revival to which every individual commit themselves. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
d. | Wat vervoer betref, sal ons ons padnetwerk in stand hou en uitbrei. | ||||||||||||||
what.REL transportation regard will.AUX.MOD we our road.network in maintain keep and expand | |||||||||||||||
Regarding transportation, we will maintain and expand our road network. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
The relative waar where is used to introduce an adverbial relative clause indicating place. The place it specifies can be concrete (as in 1c) or it can be fairly abstract or conceptual (4a). It is also sometimes used in phrases that are not relative clauses, but short adverbial phrases without a verb (although it is implied), such as (4b-c). In (4b) the phrase implies "where it is necessary", and in (4c) it implies "where it is appliccable". Relative wanneer when is used similarly to introduce adverbial relative clauses of time (4d), as well as adverbial phrases without a verb (4e-f). The relative clause in (4d) is an example of the full clause implied in (4e), and the implied clause in (4f) is "when it is appropriate".
a. | Krediet verwys na 'n reëling waar jy iets koop en daarvoor betaal nadat jy dit in ontvangs geneem het. | ||||||||||||||
credit refer to a arrangement where.REL you.SG something buy and therefore pay after you.SG it in receive take.PST have.AUX | |||||||||||||||
Credit refers to an arrangement where you buy something and pay for it after receiving it. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
b. | Waar nodig sal hulle verder verwys word. | ||||||||||||||
where.REL necessary will.AUX.MOD they further refer.PASS become.AUX.PASS.PRS | |||||||||||||||
Where necessary they will be referred further. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
c. | Projekte moet waar van toepassing voldoen aan wetgewing. | ||||||||||||||
projects must.AUX.MOD where.REL of applicable comply with legislation | |||||||||||||||
Projects should comply with legislation where necessary. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
d. | Hulle vergader wanneer dit ook al nodig is. | ||||||||||||||
they meet when.REL it also all necessary be.PRS | |||||||||||||||
They meet whenever it is necessary. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO, adapted |
e. | Maak jou geweer skoon wanneer nodig, maar moet dit nie oordoen nie. | ||||||||||||||
make your.SG rifle clean when.REL necessary but must.AUX.MOD it not overdo PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||
Clean your rifle when necessary, but do not overdo it. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
f. | Wanneer toepaslik sal videomateriaal gewys word. | ||||||||||||||
when.REL appropriate will.AUX.MOD video.material show.PASS become.AUX.PASS.PRS | |||||||||||||||
When appropriate, video material will be shown. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
When combined with prepositions, relative wat that typically changes to waar- in compounds (5a-c). However, this does not always happen, and speakers sometimes use wat and prepositions without combining it into a compound, as in (5d-f). An older variant, used only rarely today (Kirsten 2016:222), is with waar and a preposition, without combining it into a compound (5g-i).
a. | Dit is 'n fees waarmee die Wes-Kaap vreeslik graag spog. | ||||||||||||||
it be.PRS a festival REL.with the Western Cape very gladly brag | |||||||||||||||
It is a festival that the Western Cape eagerly brags with. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
b. | Slaan die woord waarna jy op soek is in die A-tot-Z-woordeboek na. | ||||||||||||||
look the word REL.after you.SG on search be.PRS in the A-to-Z-dictionary PREP.PTCL | |||||||||||||||
Look up the word you are looking for in the A to Z dictionary. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
c. | Kies produkte waarvan die inhoud reeds herwin is. | ||||||||||||||
choose products REL.of the content already recycle.PASS be.AUX.PASS.PST | |||||||||||||||
Choose products of which the content is already recycled. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO, adapted |
d. | Maar wat ek van hou, is jou manier om dit oor te dra. | ||||||||||||||
but that.REL I of like be.PRS your.SG way for.COMP it over PTCL.INF carry.INF | |||||||||||||||
But what I like is your way of conveying it. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
e. | Al wat ek aan kan dink is dat die twee grootmanne besig is om siele te deel. | ||||||||||||||
all that.REL I about can think be.PRS that.COMP the two great.men busy be.PRS for.COMP souls PTCL.INF share.INF | |||||||||||||||
All I can think about is that the two great men are busy sharing souls. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
f. | Maar die "wysheid" wat jy van praat is verduister deur die sondeval. | ||||||||||||||
but the wisdom that.REL you.SG of talk be.AUX.PASS.PST darken.PASS by the sin.fall | |||||||||||||||
But the "wisdom" you refer to is darkened by the fall into sin. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
g. | En onthou, die belangrikste ding is die familie waar jy in is. | ||||||||||||||
and remember the important.most thing be.PRS the family where.REL you.SG in be.PRS | |||||||||||||||
And remember, the most important thing is the family you are in. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
h. | Ek het my band met God en dit is waar dit oor gaan. | ||||||||||||||
I have my bond with God and it be.PRS where.REL it over go | |||||||||||||||
I have my bond with God and that is what it is about. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
i. | Daar het nie sulke dinge gebeur as dié waar jy van spreek nie, maar jy het dit self versin. | ||||||||||||||
there have.AUX not such things happen as those where.REL you.SG of speak PTCL.NEG but you.SG have.AUX it self invent | |||||||||||||||
There did not happen such things as you speak of, but you invented it yourself. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
- Kirsten, J2016Grammatikale verandering in Afrikaans van 1911-2010.Thesis
- Ponelis, Frits A1979Afrikaanse sintaksisPretoriaJ.L. van Schaik
- Ponelis, Frits A1979Afrikaanse sintaksisPretoriaJ.L. van Schaik
