- Dutch
- Frisian
- Saterfrisian
- Afrikaans
-
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
-
- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Compositions
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
-
- General
- Morphology
- Morphology
- 1 Word formation
- 1.1 Compounding
- 1.1.1 Compounds and their heads
- 1.1.2 Special types of compounds
- 1.1.2.1 Affixoids
- 1.1.2.2 Coordinative compounds
- 1.1.2.3 Synthetic compounds and complex pseudo-participles
- 1.1.2.4 Reduplicative compounds
- 1.1.2.5 Phrase-based compounds
- 1.1.2.6 Elative compounds
- 1.1.2.7 Exocentric compounds
- 1.1.2.8 Linking elements
- 1.1.2.9 Separable Complex Verbs and Particle Verbs
- 1.1.2.10 Noun Incorporation Verbs
- 1.1.2.11 Gapping
- 1.2 Derivation
- 1.3 Minor patterns of word formation
- 1.1 Compounding
- 2 Inflection
- 1 Word formation
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Adjectives and adjective phrases (APs)
- 0 Introduction to the AP
- 1 Characteristics and classification of APs
- 2 Complementation of APs
- 3 Modification and degree quantification of APs
- 4 Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative
- 5 Attribution of APs
- 6 Predication of APs
- 7 The partitive adjective construction
- 8 Adverbial use of APs
- 9 Participles and infinitives as APs
- Nouns and Noun Phrases (NPs)
- 0 Introduction to the NP
- 1 Characteristics and Classification of NPs
- 2 Complementation of NPs
- 3 Modification of NPs
- 3.1 Modification of NP by Determiners and APs
- 3.2 Modification of NP by PP
- 3.3 Modification of NP by adverbial clauses
- 3.4 Modification of NP by possessors
- 3.5 Modification of NP by relative clauses
- 3.6 Modification of NP in a cleft construction
- 3.7 Free relative clauses and selected interrogative clauses
- 4 Partitive noun constructions and constructions related to them
- 4.1 The referential partitive construction
- 4.2 The partitive construction of abstract quantity
- 4.3 The numerical partitive construction
- 4.4 The partitive interrogative construction
- 4.5 Adjectival, nominal and nominalised partitive quantifiers
- 4.6 Kind partitives
- 4.7 Partitive predication with a preposition
- 4.8 Bare nominal attribution
- 5 Articles and names
- 6 Pronouns
- 7 Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- 8 Interrogative pronouns
- 9 R-pronouns and the indefinite expletive
- 10 Syntactic functions of Noun Phrases
- Adpositions and Adpositional Phrases (PPs)
- 0 Introduction to the PP
- 1 Characteristics and classification of PPs
- 2 Complementation of PPs
- 3 Modification of PPs
- 4 Bare (intransitive) adpositions
- 5 Predication of PPs
- 6 Form and distribution of adpositions with respect to staticity and construction type
- 7 Adpositional complements and adverbials
- Verbs and Verb Phrases (VPs)
- 0 Introduction to the VP in Saterland Frisian
- 1 Characteristics and classification of verbs
- 2 Unergative and unaccusative subjects and the auxiliary of the perfect
- 3 Evidentiality in relation to perception and epistemicity
- 4 Types of to-infinitival constituents
- 5 Predication
- 5.1 The auxiliary of being and its selection restrictions
- 5.2 The auxiliary of going and its selection restrictions
- 5.3 The auxiliary of continuation and its selection restrictions
- 5.4 The auxiliary of coming and its selection restrictions
- 5.5 Modal auxiliaries and their selection restrictions
- 5.6 Auxiliaries of body posture and aspect and their selection restrictions
- 5.7 Transitive verbs of predication
- 5.8 The auxiliary of doing used as a semantically empty finite auxiliary
- 5.9 Supplementive predication
- 6 The verbal paradigm, irregularity and suppletion
- 7 Verb Second and the word order in main and embedded clauses
- 8 Various aspects of clause structure
- Adjectives and adjective phrases (APs)
-
- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
Interrogative pronouns introduce questions. Morphologically simple question words are:
wa | ||||||||||||||
who |
wat | ||||||||||||||
what |
hokker | ||||||||||||||
which |
wêr | ||||||||||||||
where |
hoe | ||||||||||||||
how |
The majority of the question items consist of complex forms. These are often combinations of hoe how and an adjective, as in hoelang how long, or wêr where and an adposition, as in wêrom wêr-om why.
It is possible to ask a question in a sentence that only contains the question-word. This is often a question to clarify what the first speaker said before. For example:
Jan sil fuort. > Wêrhinne? | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Jan is going away. > Where is he going? |
Question words are independent arguments, forming a phrase, but some can also occur attributively within a noun phrase (NP). Compare (3a) and (3b):
The question word in (3b) may also appear independently. It is then used elliptically, and the questioned noun has to be recovered from the context::
Wy joegen inoar in namme. - Hokker hiesto? | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
we gave each.other a name. - which had.you | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
We gave each other a name. - Which was yours? |
Question words can be divided into two groups: simple question words and wh-phrases. The simple forms are a fixed list of five: wa who, wat what, hokker which, wêr where and hoe how. The examples in (5) illustrate the usage of these forms:
Wa bisto? | ||||||||||||||
Who are you? |
Wat seisto? | ||||||||||||||
What are you saying? |
Hokker suertsje wolst ha? | ||||||||||||||
Which sweet would you like? |
Wêr bisto? | ||||||||||||||
Where are you? |
Hoe giet it mei dy? | ||||||||||||||
How are you doing? |
If the interrogative heads an embedded question, the clitical element 't is added, a reduction of the complementizer oft whether:
Ik wit net wa't / wêr't / hoe't dy man is | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
I know no who-COMP / where-COMP / how-COMP that man is | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
I do not know who / where / how that man is |
More on complementizers (whether or not as clitics) following interrogative pronouns is to be found in the syntactic part.
In the list below, some of these simple forms are discussed in more detail.
- The question-word wa who can have genitive case, resulting in the interrogative possessive pronoun waans? whose?, as in (7): 7An alternative formulation is with wa plus a possessive pronoun:
Waans hûs is dat? whose house is that Whose house is that? 8Wa syn hûs is dat? who his house is that Whose house is that? Wa can be used transitively with a complement that refers to a person, but only in questions expressing reproach Hoekstra (1996), as shown in (9):
9When asking about more than one person and informing about which indivuduals, one can say wa en wa? who and who?:Wa minske docht soks no? who human does something-like-that now Which human being can do something like that? 10Hja gongen nei Ljouwert ta. > Wa en wa? they went to Ljouwert to > who and who They went to Ljouwert. > Who? - The question word wat what; what kind of has an extended form watte?, in which a suffix -e is added Hoekstra (1987:54). This form is used in exclamatives in particular. Hence, when someone says ik ha wat moais sjoen I saw something beautiful, one can ask wat? but not *watte?. The form watte is typically used when someone did not understand the speaker. In the same way, the -e can be added to wêr? where?, resulting in wêre?. Possible answers to watte? are dit(te) this or dat(te) that, and possible answers to wêre? are hjir(re) here and dêr(e) there (see demonstrative pronouns). An alternative to the suffix -e in the case of wêr is the addition of the adverb sa so: wêrsa?, also extended to wêrsanne. Possible answers may then be hjirsa or dêrsa.
Wat may used attributively, then meaning 'what kind of' or 'which'. Examples are given in (11):
11A longer expression with the same meaning is wat foar or wat foar in.
extraSee for more details about the question word wat what: interrogative what + preposition as nominal quantifier.
- Next to the question word hokker which, also the form hok which exists, apparently without any semantic difference. This is illustrated in (12). 12
The word hok is special because it is inflected as an adjective; it reflects gender and number of the following noun. Singular neuter nouns require hok. Before common gender or plural nouns, the form is hokke. See the contrast in (13):
13The originally composite form hokker is not inflected, and can thus be used in every position:
14Hokker klean wienen foar him? which clothes were for him Which clothes were for him? extraDutch influenceHokker is mainly used in written language nowadays. In spoken language the complex expression watfoar is often used instead. Under the influence of Dutch the use of welke is also increasing.
- Hoe can also be combined with the indefinite article in a; however only if followed by a singular count noun (15a). Otherwise, it should be replaced by hok or inflected hokke. But when the noun is plural, this is ungrammatical (15b). Hoe'n how a can be replaced by hok(ker) which (15c) and (15d). Hok(ker) may also stand in front of a plural noun, as can be seen in (15d). 15
The distribution of hoe'n and hok/hokke is comparable to the demonstrativessa'n so a such and sok/sokke such/such.INFL such.
The inventory of complex forms is far more open-ended, as wêr can be combined with almost any adposition to create a complex question word. Moreover, the form hoe can be used to make question words with adjectives, for example hoelang how long, and hokker can be combined with any noun. A handful of frequent and well-established formations of this sort are considered univerbations and are spelled as one word (16a-c), while other combinations are regarded as separate words (d):
The form wêrom why may no longer be perceived as complex by many speakers. The form wannear when certainly is not (note also that they are translated as a simple wh-word in English).
Possible combinations of wêr where with a preposition are for example with oer about, yn in and mei with. What we have here is the interrogative counterpart of pronominal adverbs, consisting of a preposition preceded by an R-pronoun like dêr there, hjir here, earne/nearne somewhere/nowhere or oeral everywhere (see also in the syntactic part). The question word is preferably split, for example into wêr...oer, wêr...yn or wêr...mei. Examples are provided in (17)-(19).
In Dutch, examples like (a) in (17)-(19) are grammatical, and under this influence they become more accepted in Frisian. In case of preposition stranding, the Frisian sentence stress is often on the preposition:
If the NP refers to a person, the preposition may also combine with the question word wa. In this case, stranding of the preposition is optional, as shown in (21):
The form wat foar (in) what sort of is special in that it consists of three words that are still regarded as separate. The article in a only occurs if a count noun is questioned (22a), but even here it is optional. We do not find in before mass nouns (22c) and (22d), nor before plurals:
In predicative constructions the combination wat foar in can be split, as can be seen in (23):
For splitting complex question words with wêr, see Hoekstra (1990). On the complex issue of their stress assignment, Hoekstra (1991). For preposition stranding in general, Hoekstra (1995).
It is possible to ask a question in a sentence that only contains the question word, cf. Hoekstra (1987). When the listener for example did not hear what the speaker said, he can ask hin? eh? or wat(te)? what?. But to ask it this way is perhaps a little rude. The examples in (24) are a bit more decent:
The latter is also reduced to watsei?.
When a speaker tells a listener something like the following:
Hy sil nei Ljouwert ta | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
He is going to Leeuwarden |
the listener can ask
Wa sil nei Ljouwert ta? | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Who is going to Ljouwert? |
but only wa? who? is also possible. The rest of the question sentence is already clear from the context given by the first speaker. Therefore, one question word is enough. Other examples of sentences that only contain question words are given in (27):
In elliptic questions, the word dat may be added, possibly in its function as complementizer.
In addition, instead of wa? who one can ask wa dat? who that who?. Other possible combinations are, for example, hoe dat (sa)? how that (so) how (so)? and also if wa occurs in a complex question word headed by a preposition: mei wa dat? with who that with whom?. The exception is interrogative wat what. We do not have *wat dat?.
The element dat has to be inserted immediately after the core question word. We see it therefore after wêr, but not after wêroer, which, consequently, is split up:
See for a syntactic perspective on this construction elliptical questions in the syntactic part. An important external source is Van Craenenbroeck (2004:chapter 5).
Syntactically, question words are independent phrases. However, the question words hokker which, wat foar (in) what sort of and hoefolle how much/many can also occur attributively within a NP:
When these question words appear without their noun, they are used elliptically. In that case, the indefinite article in a in wat foar in is strengthened to ien, as shown in (31)
A question word does not necessarily have to be in the first position of the sentence, it can also stand in situ, that is at the position of the word that has been asked. This is only possible in echo questions, as a reaction to a previous statement. The question word has to be stressed in this case Hoekstra (1989) and Hoekstra (1989):