- Dutch1
- Frisian
- Saterfrisian
- Afrikaans
-
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
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- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Compositions
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
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- General
- Morphology
- Morphology
- 1 Word formation
- 1.1 Compounding
- 1.1.1 Compounds and their heads
- 1.1.2 Special types of compounds
- 1.1.2.1 Affixoids
- 1.1.2.2 Coordinative compounds
- 1.1.2.3 Synthetic compounds and complex pseudo-participles
- 1.1.2.4 Reduplicative compounds
- 1.1.2.5 Phrase-based compounds
- 1.1.2.6 Elative compounds
- 1.1.2.7 Exocentric compounds
- 1.1.2.8 Linking elements
- 1.1.2.9 Separable Complex Verbs and Particle Verbs
- 1.1.2.10 Noun Incorporation Verbs
- 1.1.2.11 Gapping
- 1.2 Derivation
- 1.3 Minor patterns of word formation
- 1.1 Compounding
- 2 Inflection
- 1 Word formation
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Adjectives and adjective phrases (APs)
- 0 Introduction to the AP
- 1 Characteristics and classification of APs
- 2 Complementation of APs
- 3 Modification and degree quantification of APs
- 4 Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative
- 5 Attribution of APs
- 6 Predication of APs
- 7 The partitive adjective construction
- 8 Adverbial use of APs
- 9 Participles and infinitives as APs
- Nouns and Noun Phrases (NPs)
- 0 Introduction to the NP
- 1 Characteristics and Classification of NPs
- 2 Complementation of NPs
- 3 Modification of NPs
- 3.1 Modification of NP by Determiners and APs
- 3.2 Modification of NP by PP
- 3.3 Modification of NP by adverbial clauses
- 3.4 Modification of NP by possessors
- 3.5 Modification of NP by relative clauses
- 3.6 Modification of NP in a cleft construction
- 3.7 Free relative clauses and selected interrogative clauses
- 4 Partitive noun constructions and constructions related to them
- 4.1 The referential partitive construction
- 4.2 The partitive construction of abstract quantity
- 4.3 The numerical partitive construction
- 4.4 The partitive interrogative construction
- 4.5 Adjectival, nominal and nominalised partitive quantifiers
- 4.6 Kind partitives
- 4.7 Partitive predication with a preposition
- 4.8 Bare nominal attribution
- 5 Articles and names
- 6 Pronouns
- 7 Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- 8 Interrogative pronouns
- 9 R-pronouns and the indefinite expletive
- 10 Syntactic functions of Noun Phrases
- Adpositions and Adpositional Phrases (PPs)
- 0 Introduction to the PP
- 1 Characteristics and classification of PPs
- 2 Complementation of PPs
- 3 Modification of PPs
- 4 Bare (intransitive) adpositions
- 5 Predication of PPs
- 6 Form and distribution of adpositions with respect to staticity and construction type
- 7 Adpositional complements and adverbials
- Verbs and Verb Phrases (VPs)
- 0 Introduction to the VP in Saterland Frisian
- 1 Characteristics and classification of verbs
- 2 Unergative and unaccusative subjects and the auxiliary of the perfect
- 3 Evidentiality in relation to perception and epistemicity
- 4 Types of to-infinitival constituents
- 5 Predication
- 5.1 The auxiliary of being and its selection restrictions
- 5.2 The auxiliary of going and its selection restrictions
- 5.3 The auxiliary of continuation and its selection restrictions
- 5.4 The auxiliary of coming and its selection restrictions
- 5.5 Modal auxiliaries and their selection restrictions
- 5.6 Auxiliaries of body posture and aspect and their selection restrictions
- 5.7 Transitive verbs of predication
- 5.8 The auxiliary of doing used as a semantically empty finite auxiliary
- 5.9 Supplementive predication
- 6 The verbal paradigm, irregularity and suppletion
- 7 Verb Second and the word order in main and embedded clauses
- 8 Various aspects of clause structure
- Adjectives and adjective phrases (APs)
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- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
Just as with diphthongs, there are several constraints on the sequences of more than two vowels. As shown in sequences of three or four vowels, they come in different types, which this section will treat in turn.
The sequences /woj/ and /waj/ − as in muoike /mwojkə/ aunt and moaist /mwajst/ most beautiful − are best analyzed as combinations of the rising diphthong /wo/ or /wa/ and the glide /j/. They might also be looked upon as a combination of the glide /w/ and the falling diphthong /aj/ or /oj/, but this is a less likely option. First, due to its not being organic, the falling diphthong /oj/ is the odd man out within the system of falling diphthongs as a whole, so making use of it should be limited as much as possible. Second, whereas in general the glides and the vowels in the sequences at hand have opposite values for frontness (or backness), the parts /wo/ and /wa/ of the sequences /woj/ and /waj/ have the same value. This, however, is unproblematic for a rising diphthong.
Sequences of a long vowel and a glide − as in roai /ro:j/ alignment and aai /a:j/ egg − are combinations of a front vowel and a back glide or a back vowel and a front glide. This also holds in case two close vowels are combined, see iuw /i:w/ century; age where the front vowel /i:/ combines with the back glide /w/, and bloei /blu:j/ blossom where this is just the other way around. The sequences /(u:)(w)/ and /(i:)(j)/ do not occur due to the Obligatory Contour Principle, which enforces phonological contrast.
The expected combinations /ɔ:j/, /e:w/ and /ɛ:w/ are not common. The first one occurs in Klaaifrysk, in words like swaai /swɔ:j/ swing; sway and wei /vɔ:j/ way; path. The second and third combinations only show up in Frisian dialects; the second one in the dialect spoken on the isle of Terschelling, in words like schreauw /skre:w/ scream and leauw /le:w/ lion, the third one is found in the dialect spoken on the isle of Schiermonnikoog, in words like greeuwn /ɡrɛ:wn/ ground en jeeuwn /jɛ:wn/ burning; glowing.
In theory, the central vowel /a/ can form a falling diphthong with both /j/ and /w/. However, /aj/ occurs, but /aw/ does not ( /w/ combines with the half open back vowel /ɔ/, in /ɔw/). The same goes for long /a:/, which does combine with /j/ ( /a:j/), but not with /w/ ( /*a:w/). As to this then there is a striking parallel between falling diphthongs and long vowel + glide sequences.
Sequences of a glide and a long vowel are combinations of the front glide /j/ with a back vowel and of the back glide /w/ with a front vowel, as in stjûne /stju:nə/ stem, stern, skriuw(e) /skrjo:w/ to write, swiid /swi:d/ superb, dwep(e) /dwe:p/ to gush. The central vowel /a:/ combines with both glides, exemplified by ja /ja:/ yes, jaap /ja:p/ gash, swaard /swa:d/ rind and twa /twa:/ two. Combinations of the type /(w)(u:)/ and /(j)(i:)/ violate the Obligatory Contour Principle (OCP). The combinations /jɔ:/ en /wɛ:/ hardly occur; the former only before ns, in dilisjâns /dilisjɔ:ns/ diligence and Jansma /jɔ:nsma/ family name, the latter only in the word dwêrs /dwɛ:s/ (a)cross.
Because a falling diphthong has a glide as its right-hand member, combinations of a glide and a falling diphthong have a glide on either side of the head vowel, as in fjouwer /fjɔwər/ four and swij(e) /swɛj/ to keep silent. These sequences thus are homorganic at their right-hand and heterorganic at their left-hand side. The diphthong /aj/, headed by the central vowel /a/, can combine with both glides, as in jei(e) /jaj/ to hunt, to shoot; to chase and koait /kwajt/ fake egg.
In line with the general demand of phonological contrast, it is to be expected that in combinations of a glide and a centring diphthong the glide and the head vowel of the diphthong will differ as to their specification for frontness or backness. This expectation seems to be borne out, given morphemes like tsjoen /tsjuən/ enchantment, tsjoar /tsjoər/ tether, swiet /swiət/ sweet and kwea /kwɪə/ evil; harm.
The combinations /jiə/, /jɪə/, /wuə/, and /woə/ consist of a front or back glide with a front or back vowel, thus infringing on the above demand. Of these, /jiə/ seems to occur in the word jier /jiər/ year but this is generally pronounced as [iər], so without [j]. The numeral tsien ten developed from tsjien, so [j] has been deleted here. The combination woe /wuə/ does not occur, but [wuə] may be part of someone's pronunciation of the combination of 'k, the clitic allomorph of ik /ɪk/ I, and woe /vuə/ wanted: 'k woe [kwuə] I wanted. The combination jea is only found, preceded by ts, in the out-dated words tsjea /tsjɪə/ thigh, tsjeak /tsjɪək/ jaw and tsjeaf /tsjɪəv/ thief. The words ljeaf and njear lost their j in the course of time and are nowadays leaf /lɪəv/ dear and near /nɪər/ take-over, acquisition. The combination woa /woə/ only occurs in loanwords, like kwoarum /kwoərəm/ quorum and kwoatum /kwoətəm/ quotum. In general thererfore the existing sequences of a glide and a centring diphthong obey the general demand of phonological contrast.
The words with a sequence of a long vowel with a glide on either side are given in (1):
swaai(e) | /swa:j/ | to wave |
Jaaie | /ja:jə/ | proper name |
jaaiem | /ja:jəm/ | liquor |
boaiem | /bwa:jəm/ | bottom; ground; soil |
koai | /kwa:j/ | fake egg |
(d)joei(e) | /(d)ju:j/ | to frolic |
The constraints on these sequences go hand in hand with those on sequences of a long vowel and a glide and a glide and a long vowel, in that the back vowel /u:/ combines with the front glide /j/ only, whereas the central vowel /a:/ combines with both the front and the back glide. Due to the OCP, combinations of the type /(w)(u:)// /(u:)(w)/ and /(i:)(j)// /(j)(i:)/ do not occur. The only possible sequences with two close vowels are /ju:j/ and /wi:w/. The first one shows up in (d)joei(e) /(d)ju:j/ to frolic; the second one is not instantiated, which is to be considered an accidental gap.
The long vowel in these combinations is mostly /a:/. As a central vowel it should tolerate both the front and the back glide on either side, so all of the following combinations may be expected to occur: /ja:j/, /wa:w/, /ja:w/, and /wa:j/. This expectation is not borne out by the facts, for it is only /ja:j/ and /wa:j/ which are attested. For whichever reason, the sequence /a(:)/ + the back glide /w/ is not allowed.
The centring diphthong /aw/ existed in earlier stages of Frisian; this is reflected in the spelling au, alongside sou(Visser 1997:26-27). Sytstra and Hof (1925:31) assert that rau raw, uncooked and rou rough, for instance, are pronounced alike by most speakers. It is only in the southern part of the language area that some difference is heard, in that the first element of the words spelled with a is realized [a]-like there. According to Fokkema (1940:144) the difference between au and ou does not have a 'phonological meaning'. If /aw/ still occurs, it is only in the interjection au! ouch!' and the verb miauw(e) to miaow. All this means is that the parallellism between falling diphthongs and long vowel + glide sequences can be upheld.
- 1940Over de Friese klinkersBundel opstellen van oud-leerlingen aangeboden aan Prof. Dr. C.G.N. de VooysGroningen/BataviaJ.B. Wolters Uitgevers-Maatschappij N.V.140-145
- 1925Nieuwe Friesche SpraakkunstLeeuwardenR. van der Velde
- 1997The Syllable in FrisianVrije Universiteit AmsterdamThesis