
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
Unaccusative verbs are verbs that do not have an external argument, such as an agent, to fill the role of subject. Their overt subject performs a role that is typical of the internal arguments, such as a theme role. A distinction can be drawn between monadic and dyadic unaccusative verbs, as illustrated by example (1) and (2), with one or two arguments respectively. A monadic unaccusative has a single argument, the theme, which performs the subject role, while a dyadic unaccusative has a theme and another argument, usually the experiencer, where the latter performs the role of indirect object.
Die inflasiekoers styg al weer. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
[(SUB) die inflasiekoers] styg al weer. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The inflation rate rises again. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
[Monadic unaccusative] |
Die styging in inflasie het ekonome teleurgestel. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
[(SUB) Die styging in inflasie] het [(IO) ekonome] teleurgestel. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The rise in inflation disappointed economists. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
[Dyadic unaccusative] |
On the surface, monodic unaccusatives appear to be like intransitive verbs, but there are a number of clear syntactic differences that relate to the semantic difference associated with the different thematic roles of the arguments. The subject of an intransitive verb is typically the agent who is responsible for the activity of the verb to be performed, such as running or breathing, whereas the subject of a monadic unaccusative verb is typically the theme that undergoes the process, such as falling or dying, rather than somebody who performs the action. Something happens to a theme, a theme does not make something happen, and thus semantically, the unaccusative verbs can denote non-agentive events and accomplishments quite readily. The contrast is illustrated by example (3) and (4).
a. | Die kind draf deur die veld. | ||||||||||||||
The child runs through the fields. |
b. | Die pasiënt het met moeite asemgehaal. | ||||||||||||||
The patient breathed with difficulty. | |||||||||||||||
[Intransitive verbs with agents] |
a. | Die kind val oor die klip. | ||||||||||||||
The child falls over the rock. |
b. | Die pasiënt het gesterf. | ||||||||||||||
The patient died. | |||||||||||||||
[Unaccusative verbs with themes] |
The subject of a monadic unaccusative verb need not be animate. This is in contrast to intransitives, where the subject has to be animate to execute the activity, or else be some kind of force that can act as the cause of an action. Things can happen to animate and inanimate subjects alike, and therefore a number of unaccusative verbs are equally compatible with animate and inanimate subjects, as illustrated by the verbs groei to grow and dryf to float in example (5) and (6).
a. | Die tienerseun groei vir 'n vale. | ||||||||||||||
The teenage boy grows like mad. |
b. | Die wêreldekonomie groei teen ongeveer 1% per jaar sedert 1800. | ||||||||||||||
The world econony has been growing at a rate of approximate 1% since 1800. |
a. | 'n Paar branderplankryers dryf op die water. | ||||||||||||||
A few surfers float on the water. |
b. | Die lyk / Die branderplank dryf op die water. | ||||||||||||||
The body / The surfboard floats on the water. |
Unaccusative verbs, with an internal argument as subject, are not compatible with the formation of -er-nominalisations, which is one of the clear differences between monadic unaccusative verbs and intransitive verbs. Because the meaning of nouns formed from verbs with the suffix -er is typically "the one(s) performing the action of VERB", words like the following are not attested in Afrikaans:
- *groei·er grower < Iets groei. Something grows.
- *sterw·er dier < Hy sterf. He dies.
- *vall·er faller < Sy val. She falls.
The past participle derived from a verb usually has a passive meaning, and implicitly takes the internal argument of the verb as its object. It can therefore be used attributively in a noun phrase to pre-modify a noun that is interpreted as the theme of that verb, but not as its agent. In view of this, unaccusative verbs are compatible with the formation of past participles. Unaccusative verbs are also available for the formation of present participles, since the present participle is interpreted as pertaining to the surface subject of the implied clause, irrespective of the thematic role of that subject. These options are illustrated in example (7).
a. | Die soldaat sterf. |
The soldier dies. |
a.' | Die gestorwe soldaat. |
The died soldier (=the soldier who has died). |
a.'' | Die sterwende soldaat. |
The dying soldier (=the soldier who is in the process of dying). |
b. | Die glas breek. |
The glass breaks. |
b.' | Die gebreekte glas. |
The broken glass. |
b.'' | Die brekende glas. |
The breaking glass. |
Monadic unaccusative verbs in Afrikaans are not compatible with the regular passive construction, nor with the impersonal passive.
Using the regular passive with some unaccusative verbs change the reading of the verb from unaccusative to transitive, meaning that some agentive or causative force is implied (or even overtly stated) in the regular passive, as illustrated by example (8). The breaking of waves is not typically construed as an outcome of an agentive act, and therefore not available for passivisation as shown in (8a), whereas the ritual breaking of bread during holy communion – by a minister of the church – is clearly an agentive achievement, and therefore available for passivisation, but then in the transitive and not the unaccusative reading of the verb. The same limitation applies to the use of the unaccusative with the impersonal passive, as illustrated by the pair in (9).
a. | *Die golwe word gebreek. | ||||||||||||||
The waves are being broken/The waves are broken. |
b. | Die brood word gebreek (deur die predikant). | ||||||||||||||
The bread is broken (by the minister). |
a. | *Daar word golwe gebreek. | ||||||||||||||
There are waves being broken. |
b. | Daar word brood gebreek. | ||||||||||||||
There is bread being broken./Bread is (being) broken. |
