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    Long vowels in monomorphemes
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    The Afrikaans long vowels /a/, /o/, /e/ and /ø/ are strong attractors of stress, especially in word-final position in both closed and open syllables. Open syllables of this type are mostly stressed.

    The following articles should be taken into account as important background information:

    As an orientation with respect to all topics concerning stress placement in Afrikaans monomorphemes, the following reference list should be consulted:

    (De Stadler 1981; Combrink and De Stadler 1987; De Stadler 1991; De Villiers 1965; De Villiers and Ponelis 1992; Lee 1963; Le Roux 1936; Le Roux and Pienaar 1927; Lubbe 1993; Wissing 1971; Wissing 1987; Wissing 1988; Wissing 1989; Wissing 1991; Wissing 2017)

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    In the following Extra, lists of relevant examples of monomorphemes are provided.

    Here an overview of long vowels with all possible types of codas is provided.

    [+]All types of coda

    The relevant coda appears in the first column. The four blocks contain examples of each of the four long vowels as the nucleus of the final syllable.

    Codas with the long vowels /a/ and /e/
    Table 1: Codas with the long vowels /a/ and /e/
    Coda Bisyllabic /á/ Multisyllabic /á/ Bisyllabic /é/ Multisyllabic /é/
    /p/ eskulaap
    /t/ privaat profeet diabeet
    /d/ oorreed
    /k/ volmaak apteek biblioteek
    /f/ oktaaf vergeef
    /s/ relaas bedees
    /g/ verdaag strateeg
    /m/ betaam embleem emfiseem
    /n/ sopraan likkewaan arseen fenomeen
    /l/ finaal generaal kameel krimineel
    /r/ altaar eksemplaar wanneer solisiteer

    Codas with the long vowels /ó/ and /ø/
    Table 2: Codas with the long vowels /ó/ and /ø/
    Coda Bisyllabic /ó/ Multisyllabic /ó/ Bisyllabic /ø/ Multisyllabic /ø/
    /p/ hardloop teleskoop
    /t/ piloot kreosoot
    /d/
    /k/ verneuk
    /f/ geloof filosoof
    /s/ framboos appelkoos nerveus kontensieus
    /g/ betoog dialoog verheug pentateug
    /m/ atoom karsinoom museum
    /n/ patroon anemoon
    /l/ pistool hiperbool
    /r/ mekaar kandelaar akteur amateur

    1. Voiced obstruents are phonetically devoiced in coda position, thus /d/ > [t].
    2. Empty cells indicate the absence of monomorphemes of the specific type.
    3. Here words with the pseudo-prefixes be-, ge- and ver- are taken to be monomorphemes.
    4. Preference for word-final stress in Afrikaans is clear from the historical shifting, in the case of many words, of stress towards final position, notably in hospitaal, handhaaf and vennoot (with long vowels), but also in cases such as infinitief and marathon (with short vowels in final, closed syllables). The same tendency is to be observed in many polysyllabic place names that were originally compounds, such as Potchefstroom, Stellenbosch and Johannesburg. (Stress shifts in place names).
    5. Monomorphemes ending on sonorant codas, /n/, /m/, /l/ and /r/, are much more frequent than others. Relevant monomorphemes with /t/ as the coda are also particularly frequent.

    [+]Sonorant codas: /m/, /n/, /l/ and /r/

    Long vowels with sonorant codas
    Table 3: Long vowels with sonorant codas
    m n l l r r
    beaam alleen arsenaal nagtegaal adverteer ivoor
    betaam arseen betaal normaal atmosfeer kandelaar
    embleem bobbejaan bragiaal oordeel direkteur kantoor
    probleem dekaan ferweel onthaal fabriseer kaviaar
    amalgaam gemeen finaal ovaal fasiliteer kitaar
    atoom kapelaan fluweel pedaal identifiseer likeur
    emfiseem korhaan garnaal personeel inspekteur majoor
    karsinoom likkewaan generaal pistool inspireer mekaar
    liggaam orgaan hospitaal portaal interieur monteer
    morfeem osoon ideaal potensiaal interpreteer negeer
    museum patroon kameel prieel suggereer ongeveer
    simptoom sereen kanaal prinsipaal altaar pastoor
    sisteem sopraan kapitaal rasioneel amateur pilaar
    sprinkaan kapitel sandaal eksemplaar sigaar
    koraal sentraal ingenieur teneur
    liniaal simbool wanneer
    materiaal sinjaal
    metaal spesiaal
    mineraal tarentaal
    moraal terminaal

    1. In the words hospitaal and kandelaar original stress on the first syllable is currently shifting towards word-final position; in accordance with a general tendency that characterises Afrikaans (see Stress shift towards word-final position).
    2. sprinkaan (with variable initial syllable stress too) is a contracted word, derivable from the compound spring+haan.
    3. Other words in which word-final syllables are generally not stressed, but rather the initial syllable, are: altaar; kandelaar; liggaam; ongeveer; ooievaar; oordeel; wanneer. These are among the few exceptions to the rather robust rule, some of them having diachronic explanations.

    The phoneme /t/ as coda
    Table 4: The phoneme /t/ as coda
    Examples
    adekwaat diplomaat magistraat privaat
    agaat direktoraat magnaat prostaat
    agglomeraat duplikaat mandaat referaat
    akkuraat emeritaat moderaat renegaat
    akrobaat fabrikaat nitraat reservaat
    antikwariaat formaat outokraat resultaat
    apparaat fosfaat outomaat senaat
    aristokraat granaat paraat sertifikaat
    attestaat homeopaat passaat sitaat
    brokaat karaat plagiaat soldaat
    burokraat kiaat plakkaat surrogaat
    demokraat klimaat predikaat telepaat
    derivaat kordaat preparaat termostaat
    desperaat kwadraat persipitaat traktaat
    diktaat legaat primaat vulgaat

    1. While some of these words are true monomorphemes,such as agaat, akkuraat, brokaat, granaat, kiaat and senaat, many of them may be associated with similar forms. e.g. burokraat with burokrasie, duplikaat with dupliseer or telepaat with telepatie. We regard them here as monomorphemic however, supported by, among other things, the fact that all of these words are treated as separate lemmas in dictionaries such as the HAT. For a further motivation, see Overview of Main Stress Rules.

    [+]Long vowels in final, open syllables

    Polysyllabic monomorphemes ending on open syllables with long vowels as nuclei are scarce. The list contained in the following Extra represents more or less all existing Afrikaans cases, bar proper names, ending in the four long vowels /e/, /a/, /o/ and /ø/.

    Vowels in final, open syllables
    Table 5: Vowels in final, open syllables
    Type /e/ /a/ /o/ /ø/
    A. ateljee hoera buro milieu
    diarree karba chateau
    diktee sodra kado
    dinee nouveau
    idee plato
    kafee tablo
    koepee
    komitee
    moskee
    sjimpansee
    skarabee
    trofee
    trogee
    trustee
    B. aknee
    aalwee
    dominee
    heimwee
    skaduwee
    weduwee

    1. Only words ending on long /e/ (Row 1A) are relatively common. Within this group, however, there are some exceptions (Row 1B) to the final stress rule. These exceptions all display initial stress.
    2. There are a number of Afrikaans surnames with stressed /e/ in word-final open stressed position, e.g. Coetzee, Gilliomee, Maree and Matthee, as well as some spelled with -é, like Kotzé, Maré and Naudé.
    3. The surname (from Dutch), (Van) Breda, also found in the South African place name Bredasdorp, has a long a /a/ in word-final position, and could be added to the short list A2.
    4. Less familiar words of French origin ending on /o/ are written with eau: chateau; nouveau.
    5. An important difference between Dutch and Afrikaans is with respect to words ending on a and o. Except for the few examples cited in the Extra above (A2 and A3), in a large number of Afrikaans words these letters represent short vowels, not long ones as in Dutch. For examples and discussion, see The short vowels of Afrikaans, and, specifically Short -a in monomorphemes in the case of a, and Short -oe in monomorphemes for o.

    [+]Unstressed final syllables with long vowels as nuclei

    The monomorphemes adelaar /'a.də.lar/ eagle and algemeen /'ɑl.xə.men/ general have stress on the first syllable instead of on the expected final closed syllable, which has a long vowel as nucleus. adelaar might arguably constitute a backformation in the sense of resembling the derivation adel plus -aar. In Afrikaans, the derivational morpheme -aar normally does not bear stress (cf. skakelaar /'ska.kə.lar/ switch, derived from skakel). algemeen might, diachronically, be seen as a compound, viz. al all plus gemeen common, with normal compound stress on the initial component (cf. katstert /'kat.stɛrt/ cat tail).

    [+]Pseudo-derivations with long vowels as a component

    While long vowels prefer word-final position in monomorphemes, this does not, of course, apply to words with pseudo-suffixes such as -(l)ig, -lik, -nis, -sel, -el, -er, -en, -em. Relevant examples of stressed long vowels in penultimate position are aaklig, heerlik, deernis, aarsel, debakel, blaker, Oktober, skarlaken en bodem. In a separate topic, expansive lists of relevant examples are provided in Primary stress in monomorphemes ending on Type-II schwa.

    References
    • Combrink, J.G.H. & De Stadler, L.G1987Afrikaanse fonologie.Macmillan
    • De Stadler, L.G1981Die klemkontoere van die simplekse selfstandige naamwoord in Afrikaans: 'n NGF-siening.Tydskrif vir Geesteswetenskappe21285-295,
    • De Stadler, L.G1991Oor die klemtoon van Afrikaanse simplekse: re Wissing.South African Journal of Linguistics = Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Taalkunde941-46,
    • De Villiers, M1965Aspekte van woordaksent.
    • De Villiers, M. & Ponelis, F.A1992Afrikaanse klankleer.Tafelberg
    • Le Roux, J.J1936Die uitspraak van Afrikaans.Huisgenoot2031,
    • Le Roux, T.H. & Pienaar, P. de V1927Afrikaanse fonetiek.Juta
    • Lee, A.S1963Klem in Afrikaans.Thesis
    • Lubbe, H.J1993Oor die klemtoon van Afrikaanse simplekse: re Wissing én De Stadler.South African Journal of Linguistics = Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Taalkunde118-17,
    • Wissing, D1987Klemtoon en tweesillabige Afrikaanse simplekse: eksperiment.South African Journal of Linguistics = Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Taalkunde5105-139,
    • Wissing, D1989Die klempatrone van Afrikaanse en Nederlandse simplekse: 'n vergelyking.Literator1050-65,
    • Wissing, D1991Is Afrikaans 'n inisiëleklemtoontaal?South African Journal of Linguistics = Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Taalkunde947-57,
    • Wissing, D.P1971Fonologie en morfologie van die simplekse selfstandige naamwoord in Afrikaans: 'n transformasioneel-generatiewe beskrywing.Thesis
    • Wissing, D.P1988Die Afrikaanse en Nederlandse verkleiningsisteme: 'n vergelyking in metries-fonologiese kader.Literator962-75,
    • Wissing, Daan2017FonologieVan Schaik
    About this article
    Author(s): Daan Wissing
    Category: Afrikaans Phonology
    Keywords: long vowelsprimary stress
    Version: 1.0, May 2020
    Version history:
    version editor(s) date remarks
    1.0 Daan Wissing May 2020
    This is a beta version.
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