- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- Introduction to Frisian
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans Consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological Processes
- Phonotactics
- Segment inventory
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Introduction to Noun Phrases
- Introduction to Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution
- Predication
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Introduction to Verb Phrases
- Phonology
Geographical adjectives are used to express that an entity is related to a geographical unit. Geographical adjectives are formed in three ways. In the default case, the corresponding adjective of the toponym is created by means of suffixation with -s/s/, such as the examples Amsterdams, Gronings, Surinams and Spaans in table 1 show, or –isch/is/, shown in the examples Egyptisch and Syrisch (with truncation of stem-final –e or –en). There are also individual cases of stem allomorphy, as illustrated by Spaans:
Toponym | Geographical adjective |
AmsterdamAmsterdam | Amsterdam-sAmsterdamsAmsterdam |
GroningenGroningen | Groning-sGroningsGroningen |
SurinameSurinam | Surinaam-sSurinaamsSurinamese |
SpanjeSpain | Spaan-sSpaansSpanish |
EgypteEgypt | Egypt-ischEgyptischEgyptian |
SyriëSyria | Syr-ischSyrischSyrian |
The second way in which geographical adjectives for toponyms are formed is by means of suffixation with –s or –isch of the corresponding inhabitant names. This applies to all those toponyms for which there is an inhabitant name formed with a non-native suffix (examples Amerikaans, Cypriotisch and Portugees in table 2) often accompanied by stem allomorphy, or not morphologically derived at all from the toponym, as is the case with the last three examples in table 2:
Example no. | Toponym | Inhabitant | Geographical adjective |
AmerikaAmerica | Amerik-aanAmerikaanAmerican | Amerikaan-sAmerikaansAmerican | |
CyprusCyprus | Cypr-iootCypriootCypriot | Cypriot-ischCypriotischCypriotic | |
PortugalPortugal | Portug-eesPortugees | Portugees | |
ZwedenSweden | ZweedSwede | Zweed-sSwedish | |
RuslandRussia | RusRussian | Russ-sischRussian | |
FinlandFinland | FinFin | Fin-sFinnish |
Thirdly, there are adjectives that denote native geographical entities and end in –er, as shown in the follwing examples:
Geographical adjective | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a. | de Heerder politie | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
de Heerd-er politie | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
the Heerden police | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
b. | Edammer kaas | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Edam-mer cheese | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Edam cheese |
Geographical adjectives in –s or –isch not only refer to a geographical entity, but can also be used to denote the language spoken in a geographical entity. In that case, they are to be interpreted as conversions of these adjectives into neuter nouns, as in het Amerikaansthe American language or het Amsterdamsthe Amsterdam dialect.
When the base form ends in /s/, this segment will disappear before the suffix –s due to degemination, as the following examples in 3 show:
Underlying form | Geographical adjective |
/Fries-s/ | FriesFrisian |
/Canad-ees-s/ | CanadeesCanadian |
For native toponyms there are also geographical adjectives in –er (with truncation of the stem). This is shown in table 4.
Toponym | Geographical adjectives |
Groningen | Groning-sGronings/ Groning-erGroningerGroningen |
Assen | Assen-sAssens/ Ass-erAsserAssen |
Deventer | Deventer-sDeventers/ Devent-erDeventerDeventer |
The adjectives in –er appear to have a more restricted use. They can only be used in atrributive position, and are not inflected in this position, unlike other adjectives that end in /ər/, as shown in table 5.
*Deze koek is Deventer |
*Deventer-e koekDeventere koek Deventer cake / lekker-e koeklekkere koekdelicious cake |
These adjectives are used in phrases to denote the geographical origin, as in Groninger archievenarchives of Groningen, Asser museummuseum in Assen, and Deventer koekcake produced in Deventer. The corresponding geographical adjectives in –s appear to have a wider use. For instance, they can be converted to nouns in order to denote the language spoken in the geographical region, unlike geographical adjectives in –er (het Gronings/ *Groningerthe Groningen dialect. This restricted usability is a reflex of the historical origin of the –er-adjective as a case form of the toponym. When the geographical adjective receives a property interpretation, the adjective in –er cannot be used. For instance, we find Amsterdamse arrogantieAmsterdam arrogance, but not *Amsterdammer arrogantie.
As shown in table 6, female inhabitant names are formed with these geographical adjectives as bases.
Toponym | Geographical adjective | Female inhabitant |
Amerika | Amerikaan | Amerikaans-eAmerikaanseAmerican |
Zweed | Zweeds | Zweeds-eZweedseSwedish, N |
Amsterdam | Amsterdams | Amsterdams-eAmsterdamseAmsterdam |
Egypte | Egyptisch | Egyptisch-eEgyptischeEgyptian |
A revealing set of words for the analysis of geographical adjectives as being derived from the inhabitant name, and of female names as being derived from the geographical adjective is the following sequence shown in table 7.
FrieslandFriesland |
Fries/friz/Frisian, N |
Fries/friz-s/Frisian, A |
Friese/friz-s-e/female Frisian |
The underlying form of the inhabitant name FriesFrisian ends in /z/, as the plural form is Friezen/frizən/. This stem-final /z/ disappears before the adjectival suffix –s/s/, due to voice assimilation and degemination. Hence, the inflected form of the adjective Fries is Friese, not *Frieze. Similarly, the female inhabitant name is Friese/frisə/, not *Frieze/frizə/.
The restricted usability of adjectives in –er can also observed here, as female names such as *AssereAsser-e are impossible. The suffix –isch is always chosen when the toponym ends in –ië, as shown in the examples in table 8:
Toponym | Geographical adjective |
SyriëSyria | Syr-ischSyrischSyrian |
GeorgiëGeorgia | Georg-ischGeorgischGeorgian |
- Dutch
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- The spelling of vowels
[78%] Dutch > Phonology > Spelling
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[77%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonological processes
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[76%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonology-morphology interface > Allomorphy
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[76%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonological processes
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[75%] Dutch > Phonology > Spelling
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[80%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes
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[79%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Final devoicing
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[78%] Frisian > Phonology > Segment inventory > Sequences involving s & plosives
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[78%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Schwa deletion
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[78%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonotactics > Codas > Two consonants
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[80%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes > Consonant cluster simplification: Overview
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[80%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes
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[78%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Vowel related processes
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[77%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes
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[77%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes
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[83%] Dutch > Morphology > Inflection
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[83%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Adjectives > Adjectival suffixes > Geographical adjectives
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[80%] Dutch > Morphology > Inflection > Nouns > Case
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[78%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Adjectives > Adjectival suffixes
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[78%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Adjectives > Adjectival suffixes
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[82%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Adjectives
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[81%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Adjectival suffixes > Geographical name as base
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[80%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Numerals
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[80%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Prefixation > Adjectival prefixes > Adjective as base
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[79%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Prefixation > Adjectival prefixes > Adjective as base
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[72%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
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[72%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
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[71%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
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[70%] Afrikaans > Morphology > List of affixes
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[70%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
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[85%] Dutch > Syntax > Adjectives and Adjective Phrases > 1 Characteristics and classification > 1.3. A semantic classification
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[81%] Dutch > Syntax > Adjectives and Adjective Phrases > 7 The partitive genitive construction > 7.2. The partitive genitive construction and its constituents
- 3.1.2. Modification by an intensifier
[81%] Dutch > Syntax > Adjectives and Adjective Phrases > 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification > 3.1. Modification of scalar adjectives
- 5.5. Co-occurring adjectives
[81%] Dutch > Syntax > Adjectives and Adjective Phrases > 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
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[81%] Dutch > Syntax > Adjectives and Adjective Phrases > 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
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[76%] Frisian > Syntax > Adjective Phrases > Partitive adjective constructions > Indefinite partitive adjective > The partitive adjective
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[76%] Frisian > Syntax > Adjective Phrases > Predication > Complementive constructions > Intransitive predication
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[75%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Expression of irrealis
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[74%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > To-infinitival clauses > Verbal to-infinitives
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[83%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Adjective Phrases > Characteristics and classification
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[82%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Adjective Phrases
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[82%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Adjective Phrases
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[80%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Characterization and classification
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[80%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Characterization and classification
