- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- Introduction to Frisian
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans Consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological Processes
- Phonotactics
- Segment inventory
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Introduction to Noun Phrases
- Introduction to Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution
- Predication
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Introduction to Verb Phrases
- Phonology
The stress patterns in compounds often differ from those in underived words: for instance, in the large majority of cases, nominal compounds have the strong-weak stress pattern; that is, it is the first constituent that receives stress. This differs from underived words where primary stress is usually located close to the right edge of the word (on one of the last three syllables).
Consider for example the difference between the quadrisyllabic simplex word macaronimacaroni and the quadrisyllabic nominal compound mini-pizzamini-pizza; both words have two stresses, one on the first and one on the third syllable. As shown in the table below, the simplex word macaroni has secondary stress on the first syllable and primary stress on the third one, which is in line with generalizations on stress placement in monosyllabic words. In mini-pizza, on the other hand, the stress on the first syllable is more prominent than that on the third one: it carries compound stress, which, at least in nouns, regularly falls on the first constituent of a compound. This is also known as a strong-weak pattern.
Word stress: primary stress on the penultimate syllable | macaroni[ˌma.ka.ˈro.ni]macaroni |
Compound stress (basic pattern): compound stress on first constituent | mini-pizza[ˈmi.ni.ˌpi.tsa]mini-pizza |
If strong-weak compounds like mini-pizza were simplex words, their stress patterns would regularly violate even the strongest generalizations established for Dutch stress. Yet the patterns are systematic, productive, and thus not regarded as exceptions. The difference between compounds and monomorphemic words can be expressed at the level of the prosodic word: whereas the constituents of a compound behave like one unit morphologically, they behave like (two or more) independent units prosodically; in other words, a compound always consists of at least two prosodic words.
The above-mentioned example exemplifies this difference in behaviour with respect to the Three-Syllable Window, which requires main stress to be realized on one of the last three syllables of a prosodic word. A hypothetical monomorphemic word like ‘macaroni, with stress on the fourth syllable from the left syllable would therefore be excluded, as it is the fourth syllable from the right that receives stress. Mini-pizza, however, does have stress on the fourth syllable from the left; yet as the word consists of two independent prosodic words, mini and pizza, the Three-Syllable Window is not violated: both constituents have regular penultimate stress, and thus do not violate the Three-Syllable Window.
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Stress retraction
[83%] Dutch > Phonology > Word stress > Stress in complex words > Stress shifts
- Diachronic aspects of Dutch stress (native words vs. loanwords)
[82%] Dutch > Phonology > Word stress > Primary stress in simplex words
- Acoustic correlates of stress
[81%] Dutch > Phonology > Accent & intonation
- Hammock principle
[81%] Dutch > Phonology > Word stress > Secondary stress
- Stress at the sentence level
[81%] Dutch > Phonology > Accent & intonation
- Stress in complex words
[92%] Frisian > Phonology > Word stress
- Hammock principle
[84%] Frisian > Phonology > Word stress > Secondary stress
- Words with A-class vowels in open final syllables have penultimate primary stress
[84%] Frisian > Phonology > Word stress > Primary stress > Generalizations
- Stress in prefixed words
[83%] Frisian > Phonology > Word stress > Stress in complex words
- High-vowel-plus-homorganic-glide-restriction
[83%] Frisian > Phonology > Word stress > Primary stress > Generalizations
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
[78%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Word stress
- The phonotactics of Afrikaans
[77%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonotactics
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
[77%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Word stress
- Stress in monomorphemes with final <a>
[74%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Word stress > The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Diminutive formation
[73%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Phonology-morphology interface
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
[77%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Compounding
- -achtig
[76%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Adjectives > Adjectival suffixes
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
[75%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation
- Phrase-based compounds
[75%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Compounding
- -ig
[74%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Adjectives > Adjectival suffixes
- Weak verbs
[77%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Verbs
- Strong and other irregular verbs
[77%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Verbs
- -DIM (diminutive)
[77%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Nominal suffixes > Noun as base
- âld-
[77%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Prefixation > Nominal prefixes > Noun as base
- -e
[76%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Onomastic suffixes > Numeral as base
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
[74%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Prefixation
[72%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Circumfixation
[72%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Affixation
[69%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation
- Bound forms
[68%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- 3.5. Some ambiguous constructions
[78%] Dutch > Syntax > Adpositions and adpositional phrases > 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 2.2.5.6. Application of the complement/adjunct tests
[78%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation > 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements > 2.2.5. Picture and story nouns
- 1.3.1.3. Postpositions
[78%] Dutch > Syntax > Adpositions and adpositional phrases > 1 Characteristics and classification > 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases > 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 6.3. Supplementive use of the adjective
[78%] Dutch > Syntax > Adjectives and Adjective Phrases > 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 6.5. Clausal subjects
[77%] Dutch > Syntax > Adjectives and Adjective Phrases > 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- The PPI-B construction
[76%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Expression of irrealis > The verb sille 'shall' > Participio-pro-Infinitivo
- Universal quantifiers and negation
[75%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Negation
- The suffix -ste
[75%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Agreement > Complementiser agreement
- Complete infinitival clause
[74%] Frisian > Syntax > Adjective Phrases > Modification and degree quantification > High degree specification > With infinitival clauses
- The adverb of degree followed by an adjective and negation
[74%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Negation
- Finite declarative complement clauses: construction forms
[74%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Complement clauses > Finite declarative complement clauses
- Attribution
[74%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Adjective Phrases
- The comparative complement
[74%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Adjective Phrases > Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree > Comparative > Lower degree comparative
- Finite interrogative complement clauses: syntactic distribution
[74%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Complement clauses > Finite interrogative complement clauses
- Reported speech in Afrikaans: syntactic distribution
[74%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Complement clauses > Reported speech in Afrikaans
