- Dutch1
- Frisian
- Saterfrisian
- Afrikaans
-
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
-
- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Compositions
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
-
- General
- Morphology
- Morphology
- 1 Word formation
- 1.1 Compounding
- 1.1.1 Compounds and their heads
- 1.1.2 Special types of compounds
- 1.1.2.1 Affixoids
- 1.1.2.2 Coordinative compounds
- 1.1.2.3 Synthetic compounds and complex pseudo-participles
- 1.1.2.4 Reduplicative compounds
- 1.1.2.5 Phrase-based compounds
- 1.1.2.6 Elative compounds
- 1.1.2.7 Exocentric compounds
- 1.1.2.8 Linking elements
- 1.1.2.9 Separable Complex Verbs and Particle Verbs
- 1.1.2.10 Noun Incorporation Verbs
- 1.1.2.11 Gapping
- 1.2 Derivation
- 1.3 Minor patterns of word formation
- 1.1 Compounding
- 2 Inflection
- 1 Word formation
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Adjectives and adjective phrases (APs)
- 0 Introduction to the AP
- 1 Characteristics and classification of APs
- 2 Complementation of APs
- 3 Modification and degree quantification of APs
- 4 Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative
- 5 Attribution of APs
- 6 Predication of APs
- 7 The partitive adjective construction
- 8 Adverbial use of APs
- 9 Participles and infinitives as APs
- Nouns and Noun Phrases (NPs)
- 0 Introduction to the NP
- 1 Characteristics and Classification of NPs
- 2 Complementation of NPs
- 3 Modification of NPs
- 3.1 Modification of NP by Determiners and APs
- 3.2 Modification of NP by PP
- 3.3 Modification of NP by adverbial clauses
- 3.4 Modification of NP by possessors
- 3.5 Modification of NP by relative clauses
- 3.6 Modification of NP in a cleft construction
- 3.7 Free relative clauses and selected interrogative clauses
- 4 Partitive noun constructions and constructions related to them
- 4.1 The referential partitive construction
- 4.2 The partitive construction of abstract quantity
- 4.3 The numerical partitive construction
- 4.4 The partitive interrogative construction
- 4.5 Adjectival, nominal and nominalised partitive quantifiers
- 4.6 Kind partitives
- 4.7 Partitive predication with a preposition
- 4.8 Bare nominal attribution
- 5 Articles and names
- 6 Pronouns
- 7 Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- 8 Interrogative pronouns
- 9 R-pronouns and the indefinite expletive
- 10 Syntactic functions of Noun Phrases
- Adpositions and Adpositional Phrases (PPs)
- 0 Introduction to the PP
- 1 Characteristics and classification of PPs
- 2 Complementation of PPs
- 3 Modification of PPs
- 4 Bare (intransitive) adpositions
- 5 Predication of PPs
- 6 Form and distribution of adpositions with respect to staticity and construction type
- 7 Adpositional complements and adverbials
- Verbs and Verb Phrases (VPs)
- 0 Introduction to the VP in Saterland Frisian
- 1 Characteristics and classification of verbs
- 2 Unergative and unaccusative subjects and the auxiliary of the perfect
- 3 Evidentiality in relation to perception and epistemicity
- 4 Types of to-infinitival constituents
- 5 Predication
- 5.1 The auxiliary of being and its selection restrictions
- 5.2 The auxiliary of going and its selection restrictions
- 5.3 The auxiliary of continuation and its selection restrictions
- 5.4 The auxiliary of coming and its selection restrictions
- 5.5 Modal auxiliaries and their selection restrictions
- 5.6 Auxiliaries of body posture and aspect and their selection restrictions
- 5.7 Transitive verbs of predication
- 5.8 The auxiliary of doing used as a semantically empty finite auxiliary
- 5.9 Supplementive predication
- 6 The verbal paradigm, irregularity and suppletion
- 7 Verb Second and the word order in main and embedded clauses
- 8 Various aspects of clause structure
- Adjectives and adjective phrases (APs)
-
- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
The personal pronoun of the third person singular feminine and the third person plural has the clitic variant se /sə/, both as a subject and as an object. se is realized as [zə] after a word ending in a vowel, a sonorant consonant, and a voiced fricative. This cannot be accounted for by regular voicing assimilation.
The subject form of the personal pronoun of the third person singular feminine and the third person plural used to be hja (hju) /ja/ ( /jø/) she; they. In the course of time, this form has acquired a dialectally very limited distribution. In the largest part of the language area it has been replaced by sij /sɛj/ (Klaaifrysk) or sy /si/ (Wâldfrysk). The clitic allomorph of hja/hju and sij/sy is se /sə/. This is also the case with the object form of the above pronouns, viz. har /har/ her/ and har(ren) /har(ən)/ them. However, it is very common for se to replace these pronouns in non-clitic position, although it cannot be stressed there. The use of se is exemplified in the table below:
a. | As subject | b. | As object |
1 | hja/sij komt by ús she comes to us | 1 | ik haw/ha har(ren)/se dêr troffen I met her/them there |
2 | wannear komt se? when will she come? | 2 | har(ren)/*se ha(w) ik dêr troffen it was her/them that I met there |
3 | se hat ljocht hier she has fair hair | 3 | wy ha(wwe) har(ren)/se in boek jûn we gave her/them a book |
4 | hat se ljocht hier? does she have fair hair? | 4 | har(ren)/*se ha(wwe) wy in boek jûn it was her/them that we gave a book |
5 | se hie ljocht hier she had fair hair | 5 | hy groef har(ren)/se op he dug her/them up |
6 | hie se ljocht hier? did she have fair hair? | 6 | hy droech har(ren)/se in kerweike op he told her/them to do a chore |
7 | se ha(wwe) allegear ljocht hier they all have fair hair | ||
8 | ha(wwe) se allegear ljocht hier? do they all have fair hair? | ||
9 | se hiene(n) allegear ljocht hier they all had fair hair | ||
10 | hiene(n) se allegear ljocht hier? did they all have fair hair? | ||
11 | se naam/namen alle boeken mei she/they took all books with her/them | ||
12 | naam/namen se alle boeken mei? did she/they take all books with her/them? | ||
13 | se falle/foelen they fall/fell | ||
14 | falle/foelen se? do/did they fall? |
The interesting thing is the realization of se, both as subject and object, when it follows a finite verb, see (a1,2,4,6,8,10,12,14) and (b1,3,5,6). In (a1,2,4), where the verb ends in [-t], se is realized as [sə]. Since obstruents in a sequence must agree in voicing, this is to be expected.
If, on the other hand, the verb ends in a vowel, a sonorant consonant or a voiced fricative − see (a1,6,8,10,12,14) and (11,3,5,6) −, se is realized as [zə], with a voiced fricative. This cannot be ascribed to regular voicing assimilation, for the latter only works regressively in Frisian (see Regressive Voice Assimilation: type 1, Regressive Voice Assimilation: type 2, and Regressive Voice Assimilation of obstruent sequences). Besides, the process would have to affect the word se only, hence it would lack any generality. The most plausible assumption therefore is that se /sə/ has the allomorph /zə/.
It should be borne in mind that se, being a clitic, has to lean on a host, with which it makes up a phonological word. The latter must be in conformity with general conditions on its shape. Since the trochee is the unmarked foot type in Frisian, se is likely to cliticize onto a monosyllabic host to its left. Of the coronal fricatives, /s/ and /z/, the former occurs in word-initial position and in the onset of a stressed word-medial syllable, the latter, among other things, in the onset of an unstressed word-medial syllable (see The obstruents: the fricatives). The realization of se /sə/ as [zə] in (a6,8,10,12,14) and (b1,3,5,6) therefore links up with the independently motivated distribution of the coronal fricatives.
The use of se as a direct object, see (b1,2,5), is undisputed. Not everyone will accept its use as an indirect object − see (b3,4,6) −, whereas most speakers of Frisian have serious doubts as to the acceptability of se as the complement of a preposition, as with mei se [majzə] with her/them and fan se [fɔ̃zə] of her/them. In contrast, har(ren) is fine in all uses and contexts. See also Hoekstra (1994).
There is a word-play in which the realization [zə] of se plays a crucial role:
dy hazze | [hazə] | en dy | [hazə] | hast | that hare | [hazə] | and that | [hazə] | almost |
The first instance of the string [hazə] can only be interpreted as ha se have they; the second one, however, as either ha se have they or hazze hare, so that the sentence as a whole can have two interpretations:
This ambiguity is due to the homophony of hazze hare and ha se have they.
There may, however, be more to the realization of se as [zə] than just this, for there are indications that the phonolological variant [zə] has developed into the independent allomorph ze /zə/ (see Visser (1988:197-199)). The latter is a peculiar form, since it is the only native free morpheme of Frisian which begins with the voiced alveolar fricative /z/. If a finite verb and se are separated by a pause or a parenthetic clause, se can still be realized as [zə], which is exemplified in (3):
Examples of [zə] following a pause | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a. | Dat hie se | [hiəzə] | net sizze moatten | that had she not say must | She should not have said that | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
b. | Dat hie ... se | [hiə ... zə] | net sizze moatten | that had she not say must | She should not have said that | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
c. | Dat hie, tinkt my, se | [hiə, ..., zə] | net sizze moatten | that had, thinks me, she not say must | She should not have said that, I think |
The same is found with se in coordinated phrases, see the example in (4):
Examples of [zə] in coordinated phrases | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a. | Hy wol se | [zə] | opgrave, se | [zə] | oarderje en se | [zə] | beskriuwe | he wants them unearth, them arrange and them describe | He wants to unearth them, to arrange them and to describe them | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
b. | Dat ik se | [sə] | opgrave, se | [zə] | oarderje en se | [zə] | beskriuwe wol | that I them unearth, them arrange and them describe want | That I want to unearth them, to arrange them and to describe them |
Here as well, se can only be realized as [zə] if the word preceding it ends in a voiced segment. Take the following example, a variant of (3c) above:
Dat hie, tink ik, se net sizze moatten | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
that had, think I, she not say must | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
She should not have said that, I think |
In (5), se is realized as [sə], with the voiceless fricative [s], due to the preceding voiceless plosive [k] of ik /ɪk/ I. The same holds of the first occurrence of se in (4b).
Embedded in an infinitival verb phrase, [zə] is even allowed in sentence-initial position, of which (6) provides examples:
Examples of [zə] in sentence-initial position | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a. | Se opgrave, se oarderje en se beskriuwe, dat wol er | [zə] | to unearth them, to arrange them and to describe them, that wants he | To unearth them, to arrange them and to describe them, that is what he wants | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
b. | Se lokalisearje is it slimste wurk | [zə] | them locate is the most difficult work | Locating them is the most problematic aspect of the job |
The element [zə] alone cannot occur in sentence-initial position, neither as a subject nor as an object:
The impossibility of bare [zə] in sentence-initial position | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a. | Se | [sə] | / | [*zə] | hawwe har ferpraat | they have themselves shot their mouth off | They have shot their mouth off | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
b. | *Se | [{s/z}ə] | / | har wol ik net wer sjen | her/them want I not again see | It is her/them that I do not wat to see again |
Though ze /zə/ has a more limited distribution than se /sə/, the above is an indication that the former has acquired an independent status vis-à-vis the latter. The relation between se /sə/ and ze /zə/ can be expressed as follows:
- 1994Pronouns and Case. On the distribution of Frisian harren and se 'them'Leuvense bijdragen8347-65
- 1988In pear klitisearringsferskynsels yn it FryskDyk, dr. S. & Haan, dr. G.J. (eds.)Wurdfoarried en Wurdgrammatika. In bondel leksikale stúdzjesLjouwertFryske Akademy, Ljouwert175-222