
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
Aspect deals with the non-deictic temporal structure of events and situations as expressed in grammatical constructions and lexical items, verbs in particular. The most important types relevant to Afrikaans are durative or progressive aspect, expressing ongoing action (as in (1a)), inchoative or ingressive aspect, referring to the beginning or first phase of an event (as in (1b)), terminative or resultative aspect, referring to the end or final phase of an event (as in (1c)), iterative or repetitive aspect, referring to repeated action (as in (1d)) and anterior or perfective aspect, referring to more than one of the linked phases of an event, namely the end phase as well as its current relevance (as in (1e)).
a. | Die monster is besig om te ontwaak. | ||||||||||||||
the monster is busy for.COMP PTCL.INF awaken.INF | |||||||||||||||
The monster is beginning to wake up. | |||||||||||||||
[The construction besig wees om te + V 'be busy to + V' expresses durative or ongoing action. ] |
b. | Die monster gaan slaap nie vroeg nie. | ||||||||||||||
the monster go.LINK sleep.INF not early PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||
The monster does not go to bed early. | |||||||||||||||
[The addition of the verb gaan 'go' indicates that the action of sleeping is about to begin. ] |
c. | Ons kry nie vannag geslaap nie. | ||||||||||||||
we get not tonight sleep.PST.PTCP PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||
We are not getting any sleep tonight. | |||||||||||||||
[The construction kry 'get' + past participle indicates that the action of sleeping has not been successfully completed. ] |
d. | Die kinders spring-spring agter hom aan. | ||||||||||||||
the children jump-jump after him on | |||||||||||||||
The children are jumping along behind him. | |||||||||||||||
[The reduplication of the verb spring 'jump' mirrors the iterative or repetitive nature of the action. ] |
e. | Die monster is die bos in. | ||||||||||||||
the monster be.AUX.PST the bush in.POSTP | |||||||||||||||
The monster has gone into the bush. | |||||||||||||||
[The combination of is 'is' + directional adverbial expresses an action in the past still relevant at the moment of speaking. Is is the perfect auxiliary of an elliptical past participle gegaan'gone'. ] |
While tense concerns the temporal positioning of clauses in absolute terms or relative to one another and has a deictic function, aspect denotes a non-deictic temporal perspective on the activity structure of events. Aspect is conventionally subdivided into a category relating to grammatical constructions with aspectual characteristics (progressive or durative aspect characterising a construction, as in (2a) below), and Aktionsart, dealing with the aspectual characteristics of specific verbs (e.g. inchoative aspect characterising the verb begin begin, as in (2b) below).
a. | Die komitee is aan die besluit oor die saak. | ||||||||||||||
the committee is on the decide.NMLZ about the matter | |||||||||||||||
The committee is in the process of coming to a decision on the matter. |
b. | Die prysverlagings begin môre. | ||||||||||||||
the price.cuts begin.PRS tomorrow | |||||||||||||||
The price cuts begin tomorrow. |
Aspect is also expressed by means of adverbs and adverbial phrases. Thus a proposition merely expressing past tense becomes resultative through the addition of al, klaar, al klaar or reeds already:
Hulle het al om die eiland geswem. |
they have.AUX. already around the island swim.PST.PTCP |
They have already swum around the island. |
In what follows, the main focus will be on the aspectual properties of constructions, but in the section on Constructions with aspectual characteristics the lexical aspect inherent in particular verbs plays an important part in determining the aspectual value of constructions.
Durative (or progressive) aspect refers to continued action over a shorter or longer period of time. While the present tense is not specially marked for durative aspect, a sentence such as (4a) may be interpreted as durative. The construction in (4b) is employed increasingly in Afrikaans to express durative aspect. In (4c) and (4d) durativity is expressed by means of nominalised verbs (werk work; ry 'drive') and (4e) makes use of one of a small set of postural verbs used to express durative aspect.
a. | Sy werk op 'n baie ou rekenaar. | ||||||||||||||
she work on a very old computer | |||||||||||||||
She is working on a very old computer. |
b. | Sy is besig om op haar rekenaar te werk. | ||||||||||||||
she is busy for.COMP on her computer PTCL.INF work.INF | |||||||||||||||
She is busy working on her computer. |
c. | Sy is aan die werk op haar rekenaar. | ||||||||||||||
she is on the work.NMLZ on her computer | |||||||||||||||
She is busy working on her computer. |
d. | Sy grimeer soggens sommer in die ry. | ||||||||||||||
she apply.make.up in.the.morning just in the drive.NMLZ | |||||||||||||||
She puts on her make-up in the morning while driving. |
e. | She sit en slaap mos in die spitsverkeer. | ||||||||||||||
she sit.LINK and sleep.INF of.course in the rush.hour.traffic | |||||||||||||||
She is of course fast asleep in the rush hour traffic. |
The present tense passive, with word become as auxiliary, is – unlike the perfect passive with be as auxiliary – particularly dynamic and strongly implies durative aspect:
Vreemde gode word in dié land aanbid. |
strange gods be.AUX.PASS.PRS in this country worship.PST.PTCP |
Strange gods are worshiped in that country. |
The present tense is also employed to express habitual action:
Sy werk al lank vir daardie firma. |
she work already long for that firm |
She has been working for that firm for a long time. |
A number of constructions are inchoative (or ingressive) in nature, i.e. they refer to the first phase or beginning of an action:
a. | Sy moet nou aan die lees kom. | ||||||||||||||
she must.AUX.MOD now on the read.NMLZ come.INF | |||||||||||||||
She must start reading now. |
b. | Ons moet haar nou aan die lees kry. | ||||||||||||||
we must.AUX.MOD her now on the read.NMLZ get.INF | |||||||||||||||
We must get her to read now. |
c. | Jy moenie te laat gaan slaap nie. | ||||||||||||||
you must.not.AUX.MOD too late go.LINK sleep.INF PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||
You shouldn't go to bed too late. |
d. | Is dit hy wat daar aangeloop kom? | ||||||||||||||
is it he who.REL there on.walk.PST.PTCP come.PRS | |||||||||||||||
Is it him who is arriving there on foot? |
e. | Die lawaai het gemaak dat sy nie gou aan die slaap kon raak nie. | ||||||||||||||
the noise have.AUX make.PST.PTCP that.COMP she not fast on the sleep.NMLZ can.AUX.MOD.PRT get.INF PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||
As a result of the noise she couldn't fall asleep quickly. |
Terminative (or resultative) constructions refer to the last or end phase of an event, e.g.
As gevolg van die geblaf van die hond kon sy glad nie verlede nag geslaap kry nie. |
as result of the bark.NMLZ of the dog can.AUX.MOD.PRT she at.all not last night sleep.PST.PTCP get.INF PTCL.NEG |
She didn't manage to get any sleep last night because of the dog's barking. |
Reduplication may, inter alia, express iterative (or repetitive) aspect, as in (9a), or durative aspect, as in (9b). Reduplicated verbs mirror repeated action through their diagrammatic iconicity, in other words the repeated verbal sign signals repetition in the real world. This type of iconicity is known as 'diagrammatic' as the words do not constitute a sound or other direct image of the referent, but rather picture the referent through their morpho-syntactic structure (cf. Conradie 2003). Reduplication is therefore an appropriate vehicle for the expression of iterative aspect. In as far as the perspective of repeated actions easily merges into that of an extended period of uninterrupted action, reduplication can also be a vehicle of durative aspect.
a. | Die stoet beweeg staan-staan in die straat af. | ||||||||||||||
the procession move stand-stand in the street down.POSTP | |||||||||||||||
The procession moves down the road, coming to a standstill at times. |
b. | By gebrek aan sitplek eet hulle hulle toebroodjies staan-staan. | ||||||||||||||
by lack on seating eat they their sandwiches stand-stand | |||||||||||||||
They are eating their sandwiches while standing, because of a lack of seating. |
a. | Sy is nie nou hier nie; sy is huis toe. | ||||||||||||||
she is not now here PTCL.NEG she be.AUX.PST home to.POSTP | |||||||||||||||
She isn't here now; she has gone home. |
b. | Sy is gister baie haastig die berg op. | ||||||||||||||
she be.AUX.PST yesterday very hurriedly the mountain up.POSTP | |||||||||||||||
She went up the mountain yesterday in a great hurry. |
Additional aspectual types to be discussed, are habitual (see section titled Aspectual functions of tense forms) and pre-inchoative aspect (see section titled Constructions with aspectual characteristics).
Constructions differ in the way they are related to aspect. While aspect may only be a subsidiary or secondary function of a given construction, it might be the main function of another. Aspectual functions are further discussed under the following headings:
- Aspectual functions of tense forms
- Constructions with explicit aspectual function
- Constructions with aspectual potential
- Constructions with aspectual characteristics.
- Breed, A2016Aspek in Afrikaans: ’n Teoretiese beskrywing.Tydskrif vir Geesteswetenskappe5662-80,
- Comrie, Bernard1976Aspect: An Introduction to the Study of Verbal Aspect and Related ProblemsCambridge University Press
- Conradie, C.J2003The iconicity of Afrikaans reduplication.(In Müller, G., Fischer, O., reds. From sing to signing: iconicity in language and literature 3. Amsterdam : John Benjamins. p. 203-224.)
