
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
Verbs with two Noun Phrase (NP) arguments may either be unaccusative or unergative, that is, they may be conjugated in the perfect tense either with wêze be (unaccusative) or hawwe have (unergative). Unaccusative verbs tend to have an argument frame in which the less active argument is realised in the subject position.
Transitive verbs may be conjugated either with with wêze be (unaccusative) or hawwe have (unergative). If the subject argument is more actively involved than the object in the event denoted by the verb, then the verb is conjugated with hawwe have. An example is given below:
Jouke hat Geart op 'e holle slein |
Jouke has Geart on the head hit |
Jouke hit Geart on the head |
The one who hits is more actively involved in the event than the one who gets hit. Correspondingly the verb is H-conjugated, that is conjugated with hawwe have. Now, if the subject of the sentence is inanimate, then the verb is B-conjugated, that is conjugated with wêze be, as is shown below:
De stien is Geart op 'e holle slein |
The stone is Geart on the head hit |
The stone hit Geart on the head |
However, it is not the case that a switch from animate to inanimate subject necessarily brings about a change in selection of the auxiliary of the perfect. A case in point is the verb reitsje reach (by hitting).
a. | Jouke hat Geart op 'e holle rekke | ||||||||||||||
Jouke has Geart on the head hit | |||||||||||||||
Jouke hit Geart on the head |
b. | De stien hat Geart op 'e holle rekke | ||||||||||||||
The stone has Geart on the head hit | |||||||||||||||
The stone hit Geart on the head |
Only a restricted set of verbs changes their selection of the perfect tense depending on the animacy of the subject: normally, this is immaterial. For example, the verb bewize prove is H-conjugated, regardless of the animacy of the subject:
a. | Pier ha bewiisd dat it wier is | ||||||||||||||
Pier have proved that it true is | |||||||||||||||
Pier proved that it is true |
b. | Dit papierke hat bewiisd dat it wier is | ||||||||||||||
this paper has proved that it true is | |||||||||||||||
This bit of paper proved that it is true |
Note, though, that in this example the object is inanimate. It seems then that a change in animacy only brings about a change in unaccusativity / unergativity in case the direct object becomes more actively involved than the subject in the event denoted by the verb.
Some psychological verbs standardly have a subject which is less actively involved in the event described by the verb than the object. In such cases, the object must be animate or even human. Such verbs are characteristically B-conjugated:
a. | Dat is my ôffallen | ||||||||||||||
that is me.OBJ disappoint | |||||||||||||||
That has disappointed me |
b. | Do bist my ôffallen | ||||||||||||||
you are me.OBJ disappointed | |||||||||||||||
You have disappointed me |
However, similar events may also be represented by verbs of which the subject, though inanimate, is seen as a cause. On that view, the subject is viewed as being at least as actively involved in the event described by the verb as the object. Correspondingly, such psychological verbs are H-conjugated.
a. | It ergeret har, dat er syn fragen sûnder fraachtekens stelt | ||||||||||||||
it annoys her that he his questions without question.marks pose | |||||||||||||||
It annoys her that he asks his questions without question marks |
b. | It hat har ergere, dat er syn fragen sûnder fraachtekens stelt | ||||||||||||||
it has her annoyed that he his questions without question.marks pose | |||||||||||||||
It has annoyed her that he asks his questions without question marks |
So it seems that the choice between unergativity versus unaccusativity depends on the relative prominence of the roles assigned by the verb to its arguments.
Some verbs have two argument structures, one of which is archaic or characteristic of older generations. The verb ferjitte forget is an example of this. If the more active argument, the person who forgets something, is realised as a subject, then the verb can either be H-conjugated or B-conjugated.
a. | Ik ha dat fergetten | ||||||||||||||
I-NOM have that forgotten | |||||||||||||||
I have forgotten that |
b. | Ik bin dat fergetten | ||||||||||||||
I-NOM have that forgotten | |||||||||||||||
I have forgotten that |
However, the verb is sometimes found with the more passive argument realised in the subject position. In that case, the verb can only be B-conjugated:
a. | Dat is my fergetten | ||||||||||||||
that is me.OBJ forgotten | |||||||||||||||
I have forgotten that |
b. | *Dat hat my fergetten | ||||||||||||||
that has me.OBJ forgotten | |||||||||||||||
I have forgotten that |
It is quite well possible that this type of argument realisation is restricted to a few constructions, because it is going out of use.
In another case, a verb displays both types of linking, but with a change in meaning; the verb misse may either mean miss or be mistaken. The more active argument is realised as the subject in case the meaning miss is involved:
As ik dat net mis |
if I that not miss.1SG |
If I do not miss that |
The more passive argument is realised as the subject in case the meaning be mistaken is involved:
As it my net mist |
if it me not misses.3SG |
If I am not mistaken |
However, this type of argument realisation is almost exclusively reserved to the first person conditional collocation illustrated in (10).
Furthermore, what also brings about a change from unergativity to unaccusativity is the use of a verb of activity as a verb of change of location. Consider the verb dûnsje dance. As an activity verb, it is H-conjugated:
a. | Boukje hat yn de keamer dûnse | ||||||||||||||
Bouke has in the room danced | |||||||||||||||
Boukje danced in the room |
b. | *Boukje is yn de keamer dûnse | ||||||||||||||
Bouke is in the room danced | |||||||||||||||
Boukje danced in the room |
As a verb of change of location, it is B-conjugated:
a. | Boukje is de keamer yn dûnse | ||||||||||||||
Bouke is the room in danced | |||||||||||||||
Boukje danced into the room |
b. | *Boukje hat de keamer yn dûnse | ||||||||||||||
Bouke has the room in danced | |||||||||||||||
Boukje danced into the room |
These examples do not tally with the idea that B-conjugation is a sign of the direct object being more actively involved in the event than the subject. Note, though, that these examples do not involve direct objects, but postpositional complements. It could be hypothesized that the postpositional complement as a whole is more actively involved than the subject, seeing that the location ( the room) undergoes a change from not being a location hosting the event of Boukje dancing to being a location hosting the event of Boukje dancing.
