- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- Introduction to Frisian
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans Consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological Processes
- Phonotactics
- Segment inventory
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Introduction to Noun Phrases
- Introduction to Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution
- Predication
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Introduction to Verb Phrases
- Phonology
The Germanic suffix -sel derives neuter nouns. The derivations represent the Theme role, i.e. the direct object of transitive verbs ( betinketo invent > betinkselinvention) or the subject of an ergative verb (bloeieto bloom > bloeiselblossom). Usually, they denote the product or result of the action performed by the verb. This meaning aspect has such an impact that it is not necessarily so that the derived noun is an argument of the verb. An example is neukselsperm (from the verb neuketo fuck). There are also some instrument names, like droechseldesiccant from droegjeto dry.
Where derivations with the suffix -er refer to the agent of a verb, it is rather the verb's patient or theme that is referred to by -sel. The suffix also exists in Dutch, German and the Scandinavian languages. Derivations are object names, with the exception of skepselcreature, which can denote a person. All derived words have neuter gender, although stiselstarch and spruselbit, scrap shifted to the common nouns; for more background, see gender change by opacity of a suffix.
Most words ending in -sel are derived from transitive verbs. They denote the result of the action as described by the verb:
Base form | Derivation |
skeppeto create | skepselcreature |
betinketo invent | betinkselinvention |
ôftrekketo extract | ôftrekselextract |
oerprintsjeto reprint | oerprintselreprint |
bakketo bake | bakselbaking |
mingeto mix | mingselmix |
skriuweto write | skriuwselscribblings |
slypjeto grind | slypselgrindings |
úttrekketo (make an) excerpt (from) | úttrekselsummary, excerpt |
These derivations can both refer to a concrete (cf. bakselbaking) or an abstract entity (cf. betinkselinvention).
Some intransitive verbs may also be the origin of derivations with -sel, and hence it seems as if -sel may also derive subject names:
Base | Derivation |
besakjeto settle down | besakselsediment, dregs |
bloeieto bloom | bloeiselblossom |
ferskineto appear | ferskynselphenomenon |
ynslûpeto sneak in | ynslûpselinterference |
oerbliuweto be left | oerbliuwselrelic, remnant |
útspuieto vomit | útspuiselvomit |
To be more precise, these intransitive base verbs can be characterized as ergative. This results in a common feature with the transitive verbs above, i.e. that the derivation with -sel refers to a Theme role.
The nouns derived from ergative verbs can be quite abstract, and then the relation with the verb may be relatively far-fetched. Examples are ferskynsel or oerbliuwsel above.
The semantic contribution of the suffix can be characterized as 'product or result of the action denoted by the verb'. For example, bakselbaking is the result of the action of the transitive verb bakketo bake. In a way, this can be transferred to ergative verbs. The result of a verb like bloeieto bloom is bloeiselblossom. The focus on result has the effect that we also find derivations which do not directly reflect the direct object of the verb, but are rather a result or product in a somewhat wider sense. For example, neukselsperm can be a result of the action denoted by the verb neuketo fuck, but the concept of 'sperm' cannot act as the direct object of this verb. Other derivations in the same vein are slypselgrind(ings) (from slypjeto grind), mingselmix (from mingeto mix) or skraabselscrapings (from skraabjeto scrape).
In addition, some derivations with -sel fulfill the role of instrument. Here are some examples:
Base form | Derivation |
swartsjeto blacken | swartselcarbon black |
smarreto spread | smarselointment |
fersiereto decorate | fersierseldecoration |
útwineto excuse | útwynselexcuse |
For example, one cannot execute the action of the verb smarreto spread with a smarselointment as a result. Rather, one needs the result of the derivation smarsel (the object, material) to execute the action of the verb: one needs ointment in order to spread, one needs carbon black in order to blacken, etcetera.
Quite some derivations can have a pejorative character, as is illustrated in the following examples:
Ik ha gjin goed wurd oer foar dy skriuwsels fan him |
I have no good word left for those scribblings of him |
I have nothing good to say about his scribblings |
Dy nije cd is gewoan in slop ôftreksel fan 'e foarige |
that new CD is just a lame infusion of the previous |
That new CD is just a pale shadow of the previous one |
In this pejorative use the suffix is particularly productive.
The suffix -sel bears no stress, since it is pronounced with a schwa: [səl]. A phonological restriction is the condition that the stem of the base verb may not end in [s] or [z]. For example, from sketseto sketch one cannot derive *sketsselsketch and a verb like lêzeto read can not be the basis foar *lêssel. The restriction does not apply to gearmjukselhotchpotch, coming from the verb gearmjuksjeto mix. As a second restriction, the base verb may not end in a syllable with a schwa, for instance *teken-sel < teken-jeto draw or *timmersel from the verb timmerjeto hammer.
Suffixation with -sel may result both in mass nouns and count nouns. The latter can regularly be pluralized with the suffix -s, for example betinkselinvention > betinkselsinventions. Many count nouns also have a diminutive form (cf. -DIM). Examples are skepselcreature > skepseltsjesmall creature or smarselointment > smarseltsjeointment.
This topic is primarily based on Hoekstra (1998:102-103). See also Tamminga (1987), in particular for pejorative connotations.
- Hoekstra, Jarich1998Fryske wurdfoarmingLjouwertFryske Akademy
- Tamminga, Douwe Annes1987It bysûndere efterheaksel '-sel'De Pompeblêden58104
- Dutch
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[82%] Dutch > Phonology > Accent & intonation
- Acoustic correlates of stress
[80%] Dutch > Phonology > Accent & intonation
- Diminutive allomorphy
[80%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonology-morphology interface > Allomorphy
- Phonotactics at the word level
[79%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonotactics
- Stem allomorphy
[78%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonology-morphology interface > Allomorphy
- The phonological domain of Final Devoicing
[85%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Final devoicing
- Phonological evidence for cliticization
[84%] Frisian > Phonology > Clitics
- Orthography
[83%] Frisian > Phonology > Orthography of Frisian
- /d/-insertion in the sequences /nər/, /lər/, and /rər/
[82%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes
- Word-final sequences of a liquid and a nasal
[82%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonotactics > Codas > Two consonants
- The phonotactics of Afrikaans
[78%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonotactics
- Nasalization
[78%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Vowel related processes
- Diminutive formation
[77%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Phonology-morphology interface
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[76%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Word stress
- Homorganic glide insertion
[76%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes
- Dutch
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- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
[88%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Compounding
- -ing
[84%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Nouns > Nominal suffixes
- -ig
[82%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Adjectives > Adjectival suffixes
- Conversion
[81%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation
- -er (nominal)
[81%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Nouns > Nominal suffixes
- ûnt-
[88%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Prefixation > Verbal prefixes > Verb as base
- -DIM (diminutive)
[87%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Nominal suffixes > Noun as base
- Strong and other irregular verbs
[87%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Verbs
- -k
[87%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Verbal suffixes > Noun as base
- General categories
[86%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Verbs
- Affixation
[79%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation
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[78%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
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[78%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
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[78%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
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[77%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Dutch
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- 1.3.1.5. Er-nominalization
[88%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 1 Characterization and classification > 1.3. Derivation of nouns > 1.3.1. Deverbal nouns
- 2.2.3.1. Agentive er-nominalizations
[88%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation > 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements > 2.2.3. Deverbal nouns
- 2.2.3. Resultative constructions
[88%] Dutch > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure > 2.2. Complementives (secondary predicates)
- 1.3.1.3. Ing-nominalization
[87%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 1 Characterization and classification > 1.3. Derivation of nouns > 1.3.1. Deverbal nouns
- 6.2.1. Perfect auxiliaries
[87%] Dutch > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs > 6.2. Non-main verbs selecting a participle
- Combining with to-infinitives
[84%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Predication and noun incorporation > Copulas
- The third construction
[84%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > To-infinitival clauses > Verbal to-infinitives
- Verbs and Verb Phrases in Frisian
[84%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases
- The intransitive postposition om 'around' as a verbal diminutive
[84%] Frisian > Syntax > Adposition Phrases > Intransitive adpositions
- The empty verb hinnegean 'go' selects an adjunct IPI
[84%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo > Adjunct IPI-constructions
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[84%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Characterization and classification
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[82%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Alternations > Alternations involving the external argument
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[82%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Complement clauses > Finite declarative complement clauses
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[82%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Adjective Phrases > Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
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[81%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Characterization and classification
