- Dutch1
- Frisian
- Saterfrisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Compositions
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Saterfrisian
- General
- Morphology
- Morphology
- 1 Word formation
- 1.1 Compounding
- 1.1.1 Compounds and their heads
- 1.1.2 Special types of compounds
- 1.1.2.1 Affixoids
- 1.1.2.2 Coordinative compounds
- 1.1.2.3 Synthetic compounds and complex pseudo-participles
- 1.1.2.4 Reduplicative compounds
- 1.1.2.5 Phrase-based compounds
- 1.1.2.6 Elative compounds
- 1.1.2.7 Exocentric compounds
- 1.1.2.8 Linking elements
- 1.1.2.9 Separable Complex Verbs and Particle Verbs
- 1.1.2.10 Noun Incorporation Verbs
- 1.1.2.11 Gapping
- 1.2 Derivation
- 1.3 Minor patterns of word formation
- 1.1 Compounding
- 2 Inflection
- 1 Word formation
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Adjectives and adjective phrases (APs)
- 0 Introduction to the AP
- 1 Characteristics and classification of APs
- 2 Complementation of APs
- 3 Modification and degree quantification of APs
- 4 Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative
- 5 Attribution of APs
- 6 Predication of APs
- 7 The partitive adjective construction
- 8 Adverbial use of APs
- 9 Participles and infinitives as APs
- Nouns and Noun Phrases (NPs)
- 0 Introduction to the NP
- 1 Characteristics and Classification of NPs
- 2 Complementation of NPs
- 3 Modification of NPs
- 3.1 Modification of NP by Determiners and APs
- 3.2 Modification of NP by PP
- 3.3 Modification of NP by adverbial clauses
- 3.4 Modification of NP by possessors
- 3.5 Modification of NP by relative clauses
- 3.6 Modification of NP in a cleft construction
- 3.7 Free relative clauses and selected interrogative clauses
- 4 Partitive noun constructions and constructions related to them
- 4.1 The referential partitive construction
- 4.2 The partitive construction of abstract quantity
- 4.3 The numerical partitive construction
- 4.4 The partitive interrogative construction
- 4.5 Adjectival, nominal and nominalised partitive quantifiers
- 4.6 Kind partitives
- 4.7 Partitive predication with a preposition
- 4.8 Bare nominal attribution
- 5 Articles and names
- 6 Pronouns
- 7 Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- 8 Interrogative pronouns
- 9 R-pronouns and the indefinite expletive
- 10 Syntactic functions of Noun Phrases
- Adpositions and Adpositional Phrases (PPs)
- 0 Introduction to the PP
- 1 Characteristics and classification of PPs
- 2 Complementation of PPs
- 3 Modification of PPs
- 4 Bare (intransitive) adpositions
- 5 Predication of PPs
- 6 Form and distribution of adpositions with respect to staticity and construction type
- 7 Adpositional complements and adverbials
- Verbs and Verb Phrases (VPs)
- 0 Introduction to the VP in Saterland Frisian
- 1 Characteristics and classification of verbs
- 2 Unergative and unaccusative subjects and the auxiliary of the perfect
- 3 Evidentiality in relation to perception and epistemicity
- 4 Types of to-infinitival constituents
- 5 Predication
- 5.1 The auxiliary of being and its selection restrictions
- 5.2 The auxiliary of going and its selection restrictions
- 5.3 The auxiliary of continuation and its selection restrictions
- 5.4 The auxiliary of coming and its selection restrictions
- 5.5 Modal auxiliaries and their selection restrictions
- 5.6 Auxiliaries of body posture and aspect and their selection restrictions
- 5.7 Transitive verbs of predication
- 5.8 The auxiliary of doing used as a semantically empty finite auxiliary
- 5.9 Supplementive predication
- 6 The verbal paradigm, irregularity and suppletion
- 7 Verb Second and the word order in main and embedded clauses
- 8 Various aspects of clause structure
- Adjectives and adjective phrases (APs)
- Afrikaans
- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
The middle voice is a construction type which differs from the active voice and passive voice in form and function. Its main function is to characterise or qualify an entity, such as hierdie mes this knife in (1), with reference to the action expressed by a verb, such as slyp sharpen in (1), rather than describing the action or activity as such, as would be the case in regular active or passive declaratives. As the subject of a middle verb construction refers to an entity which is qualified and therefore differentiated from other entities, it is contrastive in nature. Thus hierdie mes this knife in (1) contrasts with other knives, whereas (2) is devoid of meaning in as far as knives are usually sharpened.
Hierdie mes slyp maklik. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
this knife sharpen.PRS easily | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
This knife is easy to sharpen. |
?Messe slyp maklik. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
knives sharpen.PRS easily | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Knives sharpen easily. |
The entity to be characterised is expressed by the grammatical subject of the clause, and the semantic relationship between entity and action is usually defined further by an evaluative modifier, such as maklik easily in (3). The modifier assists in adapting the verbal action to its function as qualifier in the middle construction. Thus sy handskrif his handwriting is qualified not only in regard to the act of reading (lees), but in particular in regard to the ease of reading (maklik), i.e. its readability.
Sy handskrif lees maklik. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
his handwriting read.PRS easily | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
His handwriting is easy to read. |
In order to distinguish between the thematic role of a middle subject, which resembles the role of a direct object in an active sentence, and the role of the subject of an ergative verb when used intransitively, a distinction needs to be made between the thematic role of patient, indicating that an entity undergoes the action stemming from an agent, and that of theme, indicating that an entity is merely involved in an action. The object of a transitively used ergative verb, as in (4), corresponds to the subject of the same verb when used intransitively, as in (5). (5) is a middle construction because the subject, die ligte stoele the light chairs, has the role of patient. (6), however, is a regular intransitive construction, and die stoele the chairs has the role of theme. The intransitive clause (7) cannot be a middle construction, as the subject is agentive, rather than patient or theme. Middle constructions usually require an evaluative modifier, such as maklik easily. Therefore, if maklik is omitted in (5), a middle reading is unlikely.
Hulle skuif die stoele in nuwe rye. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
they shift.PRS the chairs in new rows | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
They are shifting the chairs in new rows. |
Die ligte stoele skuif maklik. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
the light chairs shift.PRS easily | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The light chairs are easy to shift. |
Die stoele skuif rond tydens die aardbewing. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
the chairs shift.PRS around during the earthquake | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The chairs move around during the earthquake. |
Die leeu brul in die bos. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
the lion roar.PRS in the bush | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The lion is roaring in the bush. |
The subject of a middle verb construction need not only have the thematic role of patient, as in (8), but may also be instrument, or have locative or temporal reference, as in (9), (10) and (11), respectively. The subject of a middle verb may therefore be typified as non-agentive.
Die vars brood sny lekker. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
the fresh bread cut.PRS nicely | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The fresh bread cuts nicely. |
Die nuwe mes sny lekker. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
the new knife cut.PRS nicely | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The new knife cuts nicely. |
Daardie pad ry moeilik. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
that road drive.PRS with.difficulty | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
That road is difficult to drive on. |
Sondae skou beter as jy jou huis wil verkoop. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Sundays show.PRS better if.CNJ you.2SG your house want.to.AUX.MOD sell.INF | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Sundays are better show days if you want to sell your house. |
Therefore, if a middle construction requires a non-agentive subject, a verb expressing action or activity and in most cases an evaluative modifier, such a construction may be schematised as follows:
[S[NP[- agentive]]] [VP [V[ + action] (modifier)]]
For a middle construction, such as (12a) and (12b), to be recognised as such rather than as an active construction, the thematic role of the subject needs to be differentiated clearly from the subject role expected in a corresponding active construction. For a given verb the thematic role of a middle subject may, however, not be restricted to one possibility. Thus, die koek the cake in (12a) has the role of patient as it has in its active correlate (12ai), while die mes the knife in (12b) has the role of instrument as it has in its active correlate (12bi). In both cases the middle subject may be described as non-agentive.
a. | Die koek sny vinnig. |
the cake cut.PRS quickly | |
The cake can be cut quickly. |
a.' | Die kok sny die koek vinnig. |
the cook cut.PRS the cake quickly | |
The cook is cutting the cake quickly. |
b. | Die mes sny vinnig. |
the knife cut.PRS quickly | |
The knife slices quickly. |
b.' | Die kok sny vinnig met die mes. |
the cook cut.PRS quickly with the knife | |
The cook is cutting quickly with the knife. |
A middle verb construction usually – but not always – requires an evaluative modifier to mediate semantically between the entity to be characterised and the verbal action by which it is qualified. Given that wissel change is a transitive verb, a construction such as (13a), with a non-agentive subject, is marked. However, a middle interpretation becomes possible when a modifier is added. Two types of modifier may be distinguished, one which merely modifies the action expressed by the verb, and another which also makes reference to subjective evaluation by an implied agent. Thus, while vinnig quickly in (13b) merely refers to the efficiency with which the gears are changed, maklik easily in (13c) refers to the subjective evaluation of the process by an implied agent.
a. | *Die ratte wissel. | ||||||||||||||
the gears change.PRS | |||||||||||||||
To mean: The gears are changing. |
b. | Die ratte wissel vinnig. | ||||||||||||||
the gears change.PRS quickly | |||||||||||||||
The gears can be changed quickly. |
c. | Die ratte wissel maklik. | ||||||||||||||
the gears change.PRS easily | |||||||||||||||
It is easy to change the gears. |
The difference between the two types of modifier is reflected in corresponding "easy to please" constructions, in that only the subjective evaluation produces an acceptable utterance:
a. | *Dit is vinnig om die ratte te wissel. | ||||||||||||||
it is fast for.COMP the gears PTCL.INF change.INF | |||||||||||||||
To mean: The gears can be changed quickly. |
b. | Dit is maklik om die ratte te wissel. | ||||||||||||||
it is easy for.COMP the gears PTCL.INF change.INF | |||||||||||||||
It is easy to change the gears. |
In some cases the use of the verb as only complement is sufficient to indicate the successful completion of the action signalled by the verb. This interpretation may be strengthened by stressing the verb.
a. | Hierdie kaartjies verkóóp. | ||||||||||||||
these tickets sell.PRS | |||||||||||||||
These tickets are selling well. |
b. | Daardie deur slúit. | ||||||||||||||
that door lock.PRS | |||||||||||||||
That door can be locked. |
A number of constructions, for instance the passive voice as in (16a), resemble the middle verb construction to a greater or smaller extent. The middle construction differs from the passive in having a non-agentive subject, not employing a periphrastic passive verb form, and in not expressing an agent explicitly by means of a deur-phrase, as in (16b).
a. | Hierdie soort moord word moeilik opgelos. | ||||||||||||||
this kind murder be.AUX.PASS.PRS difficult.ADV up.solve.PST.PTCP | |||||||||||||||
This kind of murder is difficult to solve. |
b. | Hierdie soort moord los moeilik op (*deur die polisie). | ||||||||||||||
this kind murder solve.PRS difficult up by the police | |||||||||||||||
This kind of murder is difficult to solve (by the police). |
In the first section, Construction and function, the basic constituents of the middle construction and their interrelated functions are described. The middle voice is a construction whose main function is to characterise or qualify a sentential subject with reference to a verbal complement. A modifier is usually employed to specify the intended relationship between the verbal qualifier and the nominal being qualified. Thus in (17), where die nuwe boek the new book is qualified by the action lees to read, the adverbial lekker nicely indicates that the intended attribute is 'readability' rather than the process of 'reading' as such.
Die nuwe boek lees lekker. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
the new book read.PRS nicely | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The new book is nice to read. |
The role of the middle subject is discussed in the second section, namely The subject of the middle construction. The subject is characterised as basically (i) non-agentive and (ii) contrastive, and may have various roles in common with non-subject roles of active sentences. These may be (iii) thematic roles, e.g. patient, theme, instrument and even locative and temporal indications. In the section Middle, ergative and intransitive constructions the focus is on the relationship between subject and verb, and it is pointed out that the latter two construction types cannot be equated with the middle. The following section, Evaluative modification, highlights the role of the modifier in linking verbal action to the nominal it characterises or qualifies. Next, reference is made to the role of an implied or overt experiencer. Finally, a number of constructions which partially resemble the middle construction are compared and contrasted with it, e.g. the passive, topicalised actives, the easy/hard to please construction, derivations with -baar -able as suffix, and attributive present participles and past participles .
The middle voice is a construction type differing from the active voice, on the one hand, in not admitting an agentive subject, and from the passive, on the other hand, in not employing verbal periphrastic forms or admitting an agentive deur by-phrase. From a functional point of view, the middle construction is employed primarily in a characterising or qualifying role rather than expressing an action, and the entity referred to by the subject is characterised as being amenable to the action expressed by the verb. Van Schoor (1983:188-189) describes the process as one where a predication consisting of a transitive verb and its object, as in (18a), relinquishes its secondary position to become the focus point of a new predication in which the subject position is appropriated or seized and an adjunct of manner or adjuct of comparison attains primary importance. In (18b) lekker nicely predicates boek book, but only in regard to the reading thereof.
a. | Dié skoene dra.PRS besonder gemaklik. | ||||||||||||||
these shoes wear extremely comfortably | |||||||||||||||
These shoes are extremely comfortable to wear. |
b. | Hierdie boek lees.PRS lekker. | ||||||||||||||
this book read easily | |||||||||||||||
It is easy to read this book. |
However, in view of the fact that more than just transitive verbs are involved as grammatical sources, this analysis should be extended further. Apart from being theme or patient, the subject of a middle verb may also fulfill the thematic role of instrument, or have locative or temporal reference. The verb, usually with the aid of an evaluative modifier of the verbal action such as maklik easily, moeilik with difficulty, goed well or swak/sleg badly, depicts a property or characteristic of the subject referent such as the readability of hierdie boek this book in (19a), and the enjoyability of Piazzola se musiek Piazzola's music in (19b). While hierdie boek in (19a) derives from the direct object of the transitive verb lees read, as in (19ai), Piazzola se musiek in (19b) stems from the prepositional object of the verb luister listen in (19bi).
a. | Hierdie boek lees maklik. |
this book read.PRS easily | |
This book is easy to read. |
a.' | Die mense lees hierdie boek. |
the people read.PRS this book | |
People read this book. |
b. | Piazzola se musiek luister lekker. |
Piazzola POSS music listen.PRS nicely | |
Piazzola's music is nice to listen to. |
b.' | Mense luister graag na Piazzola se musiek. |
people listen.PRS gladly to Piazzola POSS music | |
People like to listen to Piazzola's music. |
Semantically, employing a verb in middle verb function involves three elements which usually find formal expression: (i) an entity to be qualified (the grammatical subject), (ii) the verb itself and (iii) further evaluative modification serving to explicate the way the verbal action is suited to qualifying the entity in question, for example onderhoudend engaging in (20ai). The modification may also involve subjective evaluation by an implied experiencer, as for example in the case of maklik easily in (20a), gemaklik easily in (20ai) and lekker enjoyable in (20b).
a. | Miller se teks lees maklik en sonder fieterjasies. |
Millar POSS text read.PRS easily and without frills | |
Millar's text reads easily and without frills. | |
TK |
a.' | Dit maak dat hierdie resensie gemaklik en onderhoudend lees. |
this make.PRS that.COMP this review easily and engaging.ADV read.PRS | |
This review is therefore an easy and engaging read. | |
VivA-KPO |
b. | Hierdie vertellings lees lekker. |
these stories read.PRS enjoyably | |
These stories are enjoyable to read. |
b.' | 'n Mens lees so lekker aan sy vertellings en mymeringe. |
a person read.PRS so enjoyably on his stories and ruminations | |
His stories and ruminations are so enjoyable to read. | |
TK |
The use of a verb in its middle function is recognisable through the discrepancy between the action described by the verb and the lack of an agentive subject preceding the verb, for after all webpages, as in (21a) cannot – or should not – download of their own accord; sand, as in (21b) cannot compact itself; and paper, as in (21c), is not typically used as a cutter. The discrepancy brought about by the subject relinquishing its usual role of agent or theme, gave rise to the term usurpation used by De Villiers (1975:186-187) and others in describing this construction. The middle verb construction depends on the subject referent's capability of supporting a non-agentive interpretation, typically as patient in relation to the action specified by the verb. In the following examples the webblad web page (21a), sandgrond sandy soil (21b) and papier paper (21c) are all thematically interpretable as patient in relation to the action specified by the verb.
a. | Om te kyk of die webblad gemaklik aflaai en vertoon. | ||||||||||||||
for.COMP PTCL.INF look.INF if.COMP the web.page easily download and display | |||||||||||||||
To see whether the web page is easy to download and display. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO, adjusted |
b. | Sandgrond kompakteer baie maklik. | ||||||||||||||
sand.soil compact.PRS very easily | |||||||||||||||
Sandy soil compacts very easily. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
c. | Papier sny maklik en is boonop goedkoop. | ||||||||||||||
paper cut.PRS easily and is also cheap | |||||||||||||||
Paper is easy to cut and is also cheap. | |||||||||||||||
TK, adjusted |
A middle construction may therefore be schematised as follows:
[S[NP[- agentive]] [VP [V[ + action] (modifier)]]]
In view of their characterising function, middle constructions are usually contrastive in nature. The subject may refer to an individuated entity in a class, or – in the case of generic reference – to a subclass within a wider category of classes. Thus in (22a) the subject refers to an individual flat in the category of flats (even a single sale), while in (22b) the subject refers to flats in contrast to other dwellings.
a. | Daardie ou woonstel verkoop verbasend maklik. | ||||||||||||||
that old flat sell.PRS surprisingly easily | |||||||||||||||
Selling that old flat is surprisingly easy. |
b. | Woonstelle verkoop maklik. | ||||||||||||||
flats sell.PRS easily | |||||||||||||||
Flats are easy to sell. |
In the following, fully generic reference is excluded in (23aii) and (23bii) for lack of contrast, as sweeping is usually done with brooms and no tennis player can serve without a racket.
a. | Skoonmakers vee lekker met grasbesems. |
cleaners sweep.PRS well with grass.brooms | |
Cleaners sweep well with grass brooms. |
a.' | Grasbesems vee lekker. |
grass.brooms sweep.PRS easily | |
It is easy to sweep with grass brooms. |
a.'' | *Besems vee lekker. |
brooms sweep.PRS easily | |
To mean: brooms sweep easily |
b. | Sy slaan maklik af met dié raket. |
she serve.PRS easily off with this racket | |
She serves easily with this racket. |
b.' | Dié raket slaan maklik af. |
this racket serve.PRS easily off | |
This racket is easy to serve with. |
b.'' | *Rakette slaan maklik af. |
rackets serve.PRS easily off | |
To mean: Serving with rackets is easy. |
Comparative constructions are favoured by middle verbs as they also entail contrastive reference:
a. | Hy loop beter met hierdie skoene. | ||||||||||||||
he walk.PRS beter with these shoes | |||||||||||||||
He walks better with these shoes. |
b. | Hierdie skoene loop beter as daardies. | ||||||||||||||
these shoes walk.PRS better than those | |||||||||||||||
These shoes are better to walk with than those. |
The subject of the middle construction may have several thematic roles in relation to the verb, such as patient, theme or instrument, and may even be a locative or temporal expression. When in the role of patient, it may correspond to the object of a transitive construction, as in (25a), or to the role of theme, as in (25b) or that of instrument, as in (25c), when corresponding to a prepositional object. When locative, as in (25d), or temporal, as in (25e), as expressed by an adjunct referring to 'place' or 'time', respectively, it may characterise a certain location or time as suitable for an action to take place. These roles can all be subsumed under non-agentive usage.
a. | Die beeste kou die knolle. |
the cattle chew.PRS the bulbs | |
The cattle are chewing the bulbs. |
a.' | Die knolle kou maklik. |
the bulbs chew.PRS easily | |
The bulbs are easy to chew. |
b. | Hulle luister na die musiek. |
they listen.PRS to the music | |
They are listening to the music. |
b.' | Dié musiek luister lekker. |
this music listen.PRS pleasantly | |
This music is nice to listen to. |
c. | Hy loop beter met hierdie skoene. |
he walk.PRS better with these shoes | |
He walks better with these shoes. |
c.' | Hierdie skoene loop beter as daardies. |
these shoes walk.PRS better than those | |
These shoes are better to walk with than those. |
d. | Die passasiers sit op die agterskottels. |
the passenges sit.PRS on the rear.bucket.seats | |
The passengers are sitting on the rear bucket seats. |
d.' | Die agterskottels sit ewe gemaklik as die voorstes. |
the rear.bucket.seats sit.PRS equally comfortable than the front.ones | |
It is equally comfortable to sit in the rear bucket seats than the front ones. | |
TK |
e. | Ons reis makliker in die vakansies. |
we travel.PRS easier in the holidays | |
We travel easier during the holidays. |
e.' | Die vakansies reis vir ons makliker. |
the holidays travel.PRS for us easier | |
It is easier for us to travel during the holidays. |
In some instances a distinction between subject-as-object (the transitive middle) and subject-as-prepositional-object does not seem relevant, as the source could have been either:
a. | Die ooms luister (na die) boeremusiek. |
the uncles listen.PRS to the folk.music | |
The uncles are listening to the folk music. |
a.' | Boeremusiek luister lekker. |
folk.music listen.PRS pleasantly | |
It is nice to listen to folk music. |
b. | Die bouers bou (aan die) huis. |
the builders build.PRS on the house | |
The builders are building the house. |
b.' | Die huis bou maklik. |
the house build.PRS easily | |
The house is easy to build. |
A middle verb may be related to its subject in more than one way. Die nuwe saag the new saw in (27b), for instance, functions as an instrument, while die brandhout the firewood in (27c) undergoes the action and is therefore a patient.
a. | Hy saag die brandhout met 'n nuwe saag. | ||||||||||||||
he saw.PRS the firewood with a new saw | |||||||||||||||
He saws the firewood with a new saw. |
b. | Die nuwe saag saag lekker. | ||||||||||||||
the new saw saw.PRS well | |||||||||||||||
The new saw saws well. |
c. | Die brandhout saag lekker. | ||||||||||||||
the firewood saw.PRS easily | |||||||||||||||
The firewood is easy to saw. |
Verbs like beskadig damage, skuif shift/move, breek break, verkleur discolour and brand burn, be on fire may be described as ergative verbs – "denoting verbs which can be used both transitively and intransitively to describe the same action, with the object in the former case being the subject in the latter, as in I boiled the kettle and the kettle boiled" (Kavanagh 1999). In order to differentiate between a middle construction, an ergative construction and a regular intransitive construction, a distinction will be made here between the terms patient and theme as thematic roles. The patient role will be understood to refer to an entity undergoing action implying an agent, while theme will only refer to an entity involved or participating in some action or activity. (28a) would be interpreted as a middle construction, because beskadig damage is a transitive verb, with pewter as direct object in the role of patient in (28ai). On the other hand, verteer digest, which could be transitive, as in (28bi), or intransitive, as in (28bii), is probably a regular intransitive in (30b) as it is unlikely that the athletes consciously partake in the digestive process.
a. | Pewter beskadig maklik as dit nie versigtig hanteer word nie. |
pewter damage.PRS easily if.CNJ it not carefully handle.PST.PTCP be.AUX.PASS.PRS PTCL.NEG | |
Pewter is damaged easily if it not handled with care. | |
TK |
a.' | Mense beskadig pewter maklik as hulle dit nie versigtig hanteer nie. |
people damage.PRS pewter easily if.CNJ they it not carefully handle.PRS PTCL.NEG | |
People damage pewter easily if they don't handle it with care. |
b. | Ons eet kos wat maklik verteer voordat ons hardloop. |
we eat.PRS food which.REL easily digest.PRS before.CNJ we run | |
We eat food which digests easily before we run. | |
TK |
b.' | Die vlamme verteer die rietdakhuis. |
the flames consume.PRS the thatch.roof.house | |
The flames are consuming the thatched roof house. | |
HAT-5 |
b.'' | Komkommerslaai verteer nie goed nie. |
cucumber.salad digest.PRS not well PTCL.NEG | |
Cucumber salad does not digest well. | |
HAT-5 |
The difference between beskadig as middle verb in (28a) and verteer as regular intransitive in (28bii) only resides in the fact that the thematic role of pewter is patient in the context of (28a), but that of verteer is theme in the context of (28b). In (29a) and (29ai) below, it is unlikely that break functions as a middle verb, since the action is a spontaneous (and unwanted) event rather than an action purposely performed with that effect in mind. Maklik easily is furthermore optional in (29a) and (29ai), while middle verbs are usually accompanied by an evaluative modifier. Pannekoeke pancakes and naels nails are therefore theme rather than patient. (29aii) and (29b) are also clearly intransitive rather than middle constructions, since adverbials such as vanself by themselves and outomaties automatically indicate that no external agentivity is involved. Similarly, verkleur fade, discolour in (29bi) can only be intransitive, even though verkleur can be used transitively, as in (29bii) and (29biii).
a. | Pannekoeke breek maklik as dit omgekeer word. |
pancakes break.PRS easily if.CNJ it over.turn.PST.PTCP be.AUX.PASS.PRS | |
Pancakes break easily when they are turned over. | |
Leipzig corpus 1.0, adjusted |
a.' | Is jou naels los en breek dit maklik? |
be.PRS your nails loose and break.PRS it easily | |
Are your nails loose and do they break easily? | |
Leipzig corpus 1.0 |
a.'' | Jou pannekoeke breek vanself. |
your pancakes break.PRS of.self | |
Your pancakes break by themselves. |
b. | 'n sonbril wat outomaties verkleur |
(a) sunglasses which.REL automatically discolour.PRS | |
sunglasses which discolour automatically | |
VivA-KPO |
b.' | Lucinda verkleur net so 'n klein bietjie. |
Lucinda discolour.PRS just such a little bit | |
Lucinda loses colour just a little bit. | |
VivA-KPO |
b.'' | Bewondering verkleur sy oë na helder silwer. |
admiration discolour.PRS his eyes to bright silver | |
Admiration makes his eyes change colour to bright silver. | |
VivA-KPO |
b.''' | 'n Ligte blos verkleur haar satynsagte vel. |
a light flush discolour.PRS her satin.soft skin | |
A light flush makes her satin soft skin change colour. | |
VivA -KPO |
Intransitives with agentive subjects are excluded as a source of middle constructions as such constructions require non-agentive subjects:
Die leeus brul weer. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
the lions roar.PRS again | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The lions are roaring again. |
Sentences (31) and (32) below have all the makings of middle constructions. (31) is ambiguous between active and middle voice for semantic reasons: The thematic roles of agent and instrument, both of which may describe the subject die mes the knife, are both sufficiently agentive to weaken the required contrast between a middle verb and its (non-agentive) subject. However, as (31) and (32) are excerpts from narratives in the historical present, they represent once-off events, which disqualifies them from being middle constructions. The subjects are simply involved in the action, as instrument in the case of (31) and as theme in the case of (32), and no information is divulged about characteristics of the mes knife and houtdeur wooden door, respectively.
Die mes sny maklik deur die kabelbinder. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
the knife cut.PRS easily through the cable.tie | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The knife cuts through the cable tie easily. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
NWU Lapa corpus 1.2 |
'n Dubbele houtdeur skuif maklik oop en sy staan in 'n reusevertrek. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a double wood.door slide.PRS easily open and she stand.PRS in a giant.room | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
A double wooden door slides open easily and she stands in a gigantic room. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
NWU Lapa corpus 1.2 |
When an action is predicated to an entity, as typically happens in the middle construction, it may not be clear in what way the action is intended to qualify the subject referent. How is rye bread able to perform slicing, as in (33a), or a rural road able to drive, as in (33b)? Further qualification is usually required in the form of an evaluative modifier. The addition of maklik easily in (33ai) makes it clear that the bread is associated with ease of slicing, and lekker pleasantly in (33bi), indicates that the road makes for good driving.
a. | *Die rogbrood sny. |
the rye.bread slice.PRS | |
To mean: The rye bread can be sliced. |
a.' | Die rogbrood sny maklik. |
the rye.bread slice.PRS easily | |
The rye bread is easy to slice. |
b. | *Die plaaspad ry. |
the farm.road drive.PRS | |
To mean: It is possible to drive on the farm road. |
b.' | Die plaaspad ry lekker. |
the farm.road drive.PRS pleasantly | |
It is pleasant to drive on the farm road. |
An important distinction to be made is between modifiers relating the process to an implied experiencer, such as fantasties fantastic, in (34a), and those which merely modify the process, such as vinnig swiftly in (34b). Sometimes an ambiguity may arise, as maklik easily in (34c) may either refer to the user's experience of using the knife, or the knife's cutting ability.
a. | Hierdie mes sny fantasties. | ||||||||||||||
this knife cut.PRS fantastically | |||||||||||||||
This knife is fantastic to cut with. |
b. | Hierdie mes sny vinnig. | ||||||||||||||
this knife cut.PRS swiftly | |||||||||||||||
This knife cuts swiftly. |
c. | Hierdie mes sny maklik. | ||||||||||||||
this knife cut.PRS easily | |||||||||||||||
This knife is easy to use, or: This knife cuts easily. |
In some cases the mere success (or failure) of the action expressed by the verb vis-à-vis the entity it is predicated to is sufficient to characterise the entity in question. The relevance of the verb as qualifier is enhanced by positive or negative polarity (wel indeed or nie not) or by simply placing emphasis on the verb. What is accomplished by the modifier goed well in (35a), is also accomplished by merely stressing the verb, as in (35ai). In (35b) and (35c) the polarity introduced by wel indeed, beslis definitely or emphasis is sufficient to bring about a middle interpretation, as are nooit never in (35d) and ook also in (35di).
a. | Kaartjies vir die Drienasiereeks verkoop goed. |
tickets for the Three Nations Series sell.PRS well | |
Tickets for the Three Nations Series are selling well. | |
TK |
a.' | Hierdie kaartjies verkóóp. |
these tickets sell.PRS | |
These tickets are selling well. |
b. | Daardie deur sluit wel. |
that door lock.PRS indeed | |
That door can indeed be locked. |
b.' | Daardie deur slúit. |
that door lock.PRS | |
That door can indeed be locked. |
c. | Jou ou pen skryf beslis. |
your old pen write.PRS definitely | |
Your old pen can definitely write. |
c.' | Jou ou pen skryf! |
your old pen write.PRS | |
Your old pen is definitely writing. |
d. | Kwaliteitsporselein beskadig nooit. |
quality.porcelain damage.PRS never | |
Quality porcelain never gets damaged. | |
TK |
d.' | Kwaliteitsporselein beskadig ook. |
quality.porcelain damage.PRS also | |
Quality porcelain also gets damaged. |
Given its function as characteriser or qualifier, the middle construction always implies an experiencer. This role is overtly present in (36a) and (38b). In (36a) vir Jan for Jan points to Jan's evaluation of the truth of the statement, i.e. Jan is convinced of the truth of the characterisation embodied in the proposition. In (36b) the characterisation of the music is rendered subject to Jeanette's opinion.
a. | Hierdie boek lees vir Jan makliker as die vorige. | ||||||||||||||
this book read.PRS for Jan easier than the previous | |||||||||||||||
Jan finds this book easier to read than the previous one. |
b. | Dié tipe musiek luister.PRS vir Jeanette lekker. | ||||||||||||||
this type music listen for Jeanette pleasant | |||||||||||||||
Jeanette finds this kind of music pleasant to listen to. |
a. | Die ratte word maklik (deur Marie) gewissel. |
the gears be.AUX.PASS.PRS easily (by Marie) change.PST.PTCP | |
The gears are easily changed by Marie. |
a.' | Die ratte wissel maklik (*deur Marie). |
the gears change.PRS easily (by Marie) | |
The gears are easily changed by Marie. |
b. | Sandgrond word baie maklik (deur bouers) gekompakteer. |
sand.oil be.AUX.PASS.PRS very easily (by builders) compact.PST.PTCP | |
Sandy soil can be compacted (by builders) very easily. |
b.' | Sandgrond ... kompakteer baie maklik (*deur bouers). |
sand.soil compact.PRS very easily (by builders), | |
Sandy soil can be compacted (by builders) very easily. | |
VivA-KPO |
The thematic relationship of a middle construction subject to the verb is similar to that of a passive construction subject to the verbal periphrasis, cf. (38a), where dit it refers anaphorically to pewter. Beskadig damage appears in a passive construction in (38b), and as transitive verb in (38c). In example (38b) beskadig is used in a passive construction incorporating the modal verb kan can. Kan's reference to 'capability' or 'ability' suggests a semantic correlation with the middle use of beskadig through its constructional meaning of 'characterisation'.
a. | Pewter beskadig maklik as dit nie versigtig hanteer word nie. | ||||||||||||||
pewter damage.PRS easily if.CNJ it not carefully handle.PST.PTCP be.AUX.PASS.PRS PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||
Pewter is easily damaged if it is not handled with care. | |||||||||||||||
TK |
b. | Plastiek bied goeie sig maar kan maklik beskadig word. | ||||||||||||||
plastic offer.PRS good vision but.CNJ can.AUX.MOD easily damage.PST.PTCP be.AUX.PASS.INF | |||||||||||||||
Plastic offers good vision, but can be damaged easily. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
c. | Sigaretrook beskadig die lugblasies. | ||||||||||||||
sigarette.smoke damage.PRS the follicles | |||||||||||||||
Sigarette smoke damages the follicles. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
a. | Sandgrond kompakteer maklik. |
sand.soil compact.PRS easily | |
Sandy soil is easy to compact. |
a.' | Sandgrond kompakteer hy (die bouer) maklik. |
sand.soil compact.PRS he (the builder) easily | |
He (the builder) compacts sandy soil easily. |
b. | Hierdie mes sny lekker. |
this knife cut.PRS nicely | |
This knife cuts nicely. |
b.' | Hierdie mes sny sy lekker mee. |
this knife cut.PRS she nicely with | |
She enjoys cutting with this knife. |
c. | Hy kompakteer.PRS sandgrond maklik. |
he compact sand.soil easily | |
He compacts sandy soil easily. |
c.' | Sy sny.PRS lekker met hierdie mes. |
she cut nicely with this knife | |
She enjoys cutting with this knife. |
Die program is maklik om te installeer. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
the program is easy for.COMP PTCL.INF install.INF | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The program is easy to install. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
In this construction the verb usually expresses a useful outcome or desired result, cf.
a. | E-boeke is maklik om te lees. | ||||||||||||||
E-books be.PRS easy for.COMP PTCL.INF read.INF | |||||||||||||||
E-books are easy to read. |
b. | ?Pewter is maklik om te beskadig. | ||||||||||||||
pewter is easy for.COMP PTCL.INF damage.INF | |||||||||||||||
Pewter is easy to damage. |
As used in (42a), breek break seems a useful action and breek readily functions as middle verb. In (42b) breek is degenerative, and a middle interpretation unlikely.
a. | Sandsteen bou maklik want dit breek maklik. | ||||||||||||||
sandstone build.PRS easily because.CNJ it break.PRS easily | |||||||||||||||
Sandstone is easy to build with as it breaks easily. |
b. | Bros bene breek maklik en groei moeiliker weer aan. | ||||||||||||||
brittle bones break.PRS easily and grow.PRS with.greater.difficulty again on | |||||||||||||||
Brittle bones break easily and join again with greater difficulty. | |||||||||||||||
TK |
a. | maklik leesbare feiteblaaie |
easily readable spreadsheets | |
spreadsheets which can be read easily | |
VivA-KPO |
a.' | Die feiteblaaie lees.PRS maklik. |
the spreadsheets read easily | |
The spreadsheets are easy to read. |
b. | 'n maklik invulbare vormtestament |
an easily completeable form.will | |
a will form which is easy to complete | |
VivA-KPO |
b.' | Die vormtestament vul maklik in. |
the form.will fill.PRS easily out | |
The will form is easy to fill out. |
Several of the -baar derivations listed by Combrink and Dodds (1984) Combrink and Dodds seem amenable to being used in middle constructions. In many cases these verbs may be typified as 'producing a useful or desired result in an appropriate context'. This, in turn, may indicate that middle verbs are, in their characterising or qualifying function, resultative in nature. Examples: oorreedbaar able to be convinced, smeebaar forgeable, verskuifbaar moveable, ploegbaar ploughable, skeibaar separable, drinkbaar drinkable, verhandelbaar negotiable, telbaar countable, herstelbaar reparable, verkoopbaar sellable, etc.
Die skoene loop lekker: die lekker lopende skoene | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
the shoes walk.PRS comfortably: the comfortably walking.PRS.PTCP.ATTR shoes | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The shoes are comfortable to walk with: the shoes comfortable to walk with |
This format is, however, seldom used, as noun phrases are not easily extended to include an evaluative modifier, such as lekker in the above, and because the head is typically in an agentive relationship with the participle. A middle interpretation is possible in the following cases:
a. | Die fiets ry lekker: 'n lekker ryende fiets | ||||||||||||||
the bicycle ride.PRS comfortably: a comfortably ride.PRS.PTCP.ATTR bicycle | |||||||||||||||
The bicycle is comfortable to ride on: a bicyle which rides comfortably |
b. | Die vliegtuig hanteer maklik: 'n maklik hanterende vliegtuig | ||||||||||||||
the aeroplane handle.PRS easily: an easily handle.PRS.PTCP.ATTR aeroplane | |||||||||||||||
The aeroplane is easy to handle: an aeroplane which is easily handled |
c. | Die geweer skiet akkuraat: 'n akkuraat skietende geweer | ||||||||||||||
the rifle shoot.PRS accurately: an accurately shoot.PRS.PTCP.ATTR rifle | |||||||||||||||
The rifle shoots accurately: a rifle which shoots accurately |
d. | Die huise verkoop goed: die goed verkopende huise | ||||||||||||||
the houses.PRS sell well: the well sell.PRS.PTCP.ATTR houses | |||||||||||||||
The houses sell well: the houses which sell well |
Verkoop sell is one of a few verbs that may be used as a middle verb without an evaluative modifier. Therefore:
Die huise verkoop: die verkopende huise (is in die minderheid) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
the houses sell.PRS: the sell.PRS.PTCP.ATTR houses (be.PRS in the minority) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The houses are selling: the houses which sell (are in the minority) |
The following seem doubtful:
a. | Die ratte wissel: ?die maklik wisselende ratte | ||||||||||||||
the gears change.PRS: the easily change.PRS.PTCP.ATTR gears | |||||||||||||||
The gears change: the gears which change easily |
b. | Die motor bestuur maklik: ?die maklik besturende motor | ||||||||||||||
the car drive.PRS easily: the easily drive.PRS.PTCP.ATTR car | |||||||||||||||
The car is easy to drive: the car which is easy to drive |
a. | Die huise verkoop goed: die goed verkoopte huise | ||||||||||||||
the houses sell.PRS well: the well sell.PST.PTCP.ATTR houses | |||||||||||||||
The houses sell well: the houses which were sold well |
b. | Die bome verplant maklik: die maklik verplante bome | ||||||||||||||
the trees transplant.PRS easily: the easily transplant.PST.PTCP.ATTR trees | |||||||||||||||
The trees are easily transplanted: the trees which were easily transplanted |
c. | Die boek lees maklik: 'n maklik gelese/geleeste boek | ||||||||||||||
the book read.PRS easily: an easily read.PST.PTCP.ATTR book | |||||||||||||||
The book is easy to read: a book which was read easily |
However, while the head of the participial construction may reflect the subject-verb relationship of the middle construction, the adverbial qualifier of the former relates differently to the head. In the middle construction in (48a) the evaluative modifier goed qualifies the sellability of the houses (hinting at the number of houses sold), whereas goed in the participial construction suggests that the houses were sold at a good price. While maklik in the participial construction in (48b) and (48c) modifies the action of transplanting and reading, respectively, it mainly characterises bome and boek in respect to verbal action in the middle construction. While the middle verbs verkoop, verplant and lees in (48a), (48b) and (48c), respectively, qualify their subjects, the corresponding participles mainly describe completed action with the head undergoing the action. This accords with Butler's (2016:83) view "that the participle form only profiles all the states of the process as they unfold". It seems that 'n maklik gelese/geleeste boek a book which was read easily may be understood both in the participial sense of 'a book that was easy to read', with a perfective interpretation matching the middle function, and in the passive sense of 'a book that is easily read'. The verb lees read differs from verkoop sell and verplant transplant in being aspectually durative, while they are terminative.
a. | De oplossing laat zich gemakkelijk raden. | ||||||||||||||
the solution let.LINK itself.REFL easily guess.INF | |||||||||||||||
It is easy to guess what the solution is. |
b. | Gertjan laat hom teësinnig ompraat. | ||||||||||||||
Gertjan let.LINK him.REFL reluctantly persuade.INF | |||||||||||||||
Reluctantly, Gertjan allows himself to be persuaded. | |||||||||||||||
TK |
c. | Karl laat hom nie so maklik afsit nie. | ||||||||||||||
Karl let.LINK him.REFL not so easily dissuade.INF PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||
Karl is not dissuaded so easily. |
a. | Het zit gemakkelijk op deze stoel. | ||||||||||||||
it sit.PRS easily on this chair | |||||||||||||||
This chair is easy to sit on. |
b. | *Dit sit gemaklik op hierdie stoel. | ||||||||||||||
it sit.PRS easily on this chair | |||||||||||||||
To mean: This chair is easy to sit on. |
- Broekhuis, Hans, Corver, Norbert & Vos, Riet2015Syntax of Dutch. Verbs and verb phrasesComprehensive grammar resourcesAmsterdam University Press
- Butler, A2016Die deelwoord as 'n ánder vorm van die werkwoord.Tydskrif vir Geesteswetenskappe5681-101,
- Combrink, J.G.H. & Dodds, R.McD1984Retrograde woordeboek van Afrikaans.
- De Villiers, M1975Die semantiek van Afrikaans.HAUM
- Kavanagh, K1999South African Concise Oxford DictionaryOxfordOxford University Press
- Van Schoor, J.L1983Die grammatika van standaard-Afrikaans.Lex Patria
version | editor(s) | date | remarks |
1.0 | Jac Conradie | May 2020 |
