- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- Introduction to Frisian
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans Consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological Processes
- Phonotactics
- Segment inventory
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Introduction to Noun Phrases
- Introduction to Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution
- Predication
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Introduction to Verb Phrases
- Phonology
Direct speech involves the supposedly literal quotation of what a person said, whereas indirect speech is not meant to be literal (see direct and indirect speech). For example, direct speech preserves indexicals like now and I, which may be changed to then and (s)he in indirect speech (see here and now indexicals). Direct speech may be introduced by so-called bridge-verbs, of which the subject specifies who is the speaker. An example is given below:
'Wike en ik gean wol mei de bus,' sei mem grimmitich |
Wike and I go DcP with the bus said mother grimly |
'Wike and I will go by bus, mother' said grimly |
Here, the bridge verb sizzesay specifies the manner of expression. Forms of expression include saying, thinking, reporting , and so on. The subject of the verb of expression, memmother in the example above, specifies who is the one expressing something.
Indirect speech is syntactically more fully integrated into the superordinate clause in which it is contained, although the degree of integration also depends on the chosen construction. The example above can be rendered as indirect speech in the form of a Verb-Final construction, as follows:
Dat Wike en sy wol mei de bus gean soene, hie mem grimmitich sein |
that Wike and sy DcP with the bus go would had mother grimly said |
That Wike and she would go by bus" mother had said grimly |
The form of the pronoun is now changed from first person in direct speech to third person in indirect speech, due to the subject of the bridge verb, which is also third person.
There are various constructions for the representation of direct and indirect speech following bridge verbs. These constructions include: Verb-First clauses, Verb-Second clauses, Verb-Final clauses, which may or may not be introduced by a complementiser.
Such constructions are not only found following bridge verbs, but also in other superordinate structures, notably those defined by degree clauses and clauses of effect.
CV2 is the abbreviation that is used for this construction featuring a clause introduced by a Complementiser (C) followed by Verb-Second (V2). CV2s are not syntactically integrated in the superordinate clause in which they are found, so they are unintegrated (U). Correspondingly, we will henceforth refer to CV2s as UCV2s, while noting that ICV2s (Integrated CV2s) are not found in Frisian.
More details about bridge verbs, construction types and direct and indirect speech can be found by following the corresponding links:
- Direct and indirect speech
- Pronominal coreference, here and now indexicals and direct versus indirect speech
- Integration of direct speech in the superordinate clause
- Bridge verbs and construction types defined by the placement of the tensed verb
- Clause pairs of degree and effect
- Clause pairs of effect and cause
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Phonological processes in casual speech
[75%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonological processes
- Intonation
[71%] Dutch > Phonology > Accent & intonation
- Acoustic correlates of stress
[71%] Dutch > Phonology > Accent & intonation
- Diminutive allomorphy
[70%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonology-morphology interface > Allomorphy
- Abstract phonological forms in Dutch orthography
[70%] Dutch > Phonology > Spelling
- /d/-insertion in the sequences /nər/, /lər/, and /rər/
[75%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes
- Orthography
[75%] Frisian > Phonology > Orthography of Frisian
- Verb stems (present tense stems) with and without final consonant
[75%] Frisian > Phonology > Allomorphy
- /{s/z}/-insertion between /{t/d}/ and /jə/
[74%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes
- The phonological domain of Final Devoicing
[74%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Final devoicing
- The phonotactics of Afrikaans
[72%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonotactics
- Nasalization
[72%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Vowel related processes
- Rhotacism
[71%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes
- d-deletion
[71%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes > Consonant cluster simplification: Overview
- Homorganic glide insertion
[71%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
[73%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Compounding
- Personal pronouns
[73%] Dutch > Morphology > Inflection > Pronouns
- Verbal inflection
[72%] Dutch > Morphology > Inflection
- Cardinal numerals
[72%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Numerals
- Possessive pronouns
[72%] Dutch > Morphology > Inflection > Pronouns
- General categories
[76%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Verbs
- Cardinal numbers
[76%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Numerals
- Weak verbs
[75%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Verbs
- -DIM (diminutive)
[75%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Nominal suffixes > Noun as base
- Strong and other irregular verbs
[75%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Verbs
- Prefixation
[69%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Affixation
[68%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
[67%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Inputs and input restrictions
[67%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Conversion
[66%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- 5.1.2.4. Reported speech
[78%] Dutch > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses > 5.1. Finite argument clauses > 5.1.2. Direct object clauses
- 1.3. Inflection
[76%] Dutch > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > 1 Characterization and classification
- 5.1.1. General introduction
[76%] Dutch > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses > 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2.2.2. Subject raising infinitivals
[76%] Dutch > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses > 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses > 5.2.2. Te-infinitivals
- 3.1. Main types
[75%] Dutch > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Embedded Verb-Second with and without complementiser
[85%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Direct and indirect speech following the marker fan 'like'
[84%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Embedded Verb Second > Verb-second in embedded clauses (NCV2s)
- Pronominal coreference, here and now indexicals and direct versus indirect speech
[83%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Embedded Verb Second > Bridge verbs
- Integration of direct speech in the superordinate clause
[82%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Embedded Verb Second > Bridge verbs
- Direct and indirect speech
[79%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Embedded Verb Second > Bridge verbs
- Reported speech in Afrikaans: syntactic distribution
[80%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Complement clauses > Reported speech in Afrikaans
- Reported speech in Afrikaans: construction forms
[79%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Complement clauses > Reported speech in Afrikaans
- Complement clauses (overview)
[77%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases
- Mood
[76%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Characterization and classification
- Reported speech in Afrikaans: lexical and semantic associations
[76%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Complement clauses > Reported speech in Afrikaans
