
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
The second person pronouns in Afrikaans distinguish between singular and plural. The singular takes jy you.SG.SUB as subject, and jou you.SG.OJB as object (1).
a. | Jy weet meneer kry steek in sy tande as dit koud is. | ||||||||||||||
you.SG know mister get sting in his teeth when it cold be.PR | |||||||||||||||
You know his teeth sting when it is cold. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
b. | Kom hier dat ek jou kan gelukwens. | ||||||||||||||
come here that.COMP I you.SG can.AUX.MOD congratulate | |||||||||||||||
Come here so that I can congratulate you. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
The second person plural pronoun form is julle you.PL, whether used as subject or object (2).
a. | Julle ken al die storie. | ||||||||||||||
you.PL know already the story | |||||||||||||||
You already know the story. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
b. | Ek sal julle nie vergeet nie. | ||||||||||||||
I will.AUX you.PL not forget PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||
I will never forget you. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
Afrikaans also has a honorific second person pronoun u you.HON, which is unmarked for number or case (3).
Ons onderneming teenoor u is om aan u meer keuses te bied. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
our undertaking against you.HON be.PRS for.COMP for you.HON more choices PTCL.INF offer.INF | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
We undertake to offer you more options. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
The second person singular pronoun in Afrikaans takes the subject form jy you.SG.SUB (4a and 4b). The subject form is occasionally used with a postmodifier, often the adverb daar there (4c), sometimes an adjective phrase (AP) (4d), or a noun phrase (NP) (4e).
a. | Jy kan dit vir jou vat. | ||||||||||||||
you.SG can.AUX.MOD it for you.SG take | |||||||||||||||
You can take it for yourself. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
b. | Hoekom het jy nie geluister nie? | ||||||||||||||
why have.AUX you.SG not listen.PST PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||
Why did you not listen? | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
c. | Jy daar, wie en wat is jy? | ||||||||||||||
you.SG there who.REL and what be.PRS you.SG | |||||||||||||||
You there, who and what are you? | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
d. | Hey, jy daar agter by die motorbike... | ||||||||||||||
hey you.SG there behind at the motorbike | |||||||||||||||
Hey, you there in the back at the motorbike... | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
e. | Jy die leser, is die hoofkarakter in die boek. | ||||||||||||||
you.SG the reader be.PRS the head.character in the book | |||||||||||||||
You the reader, is the main character in the book. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
The object form of the second person singular pronoun is jou you.SG.OBJ (5a), also used in prepositional phrases (PPs) (5b).
a. | Meeste van die gashandelaars sal jou kan help. | ||||||||||||||
most of the gas.dealers will you.SG can help | |||||||||||||||
Most of the gas dealers will be able to help you. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
b. | Daar mag nie teen jou gediskrimineer word nie. | ||||||||||||||
there may.AUX.MOD not against you.SG discriminate.PASS become.AUX.PASS.PRS PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||
There may not be discriminated against you. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
The form of the second person plural pronoun, julle you.PL, is the same whether it is used as a subject (6a), an object (6b), or in a PP (6c).
a. | Julle was gesuip, punt. | ||||||||||||||
you.PL be.PRT drunk period | |||||||||||||||
You were drunk, period. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
b. | Ek wil julle vandag 'n ding vertel. | ||||||||||||||
I want.to.AUX.MOD you.PL today a thing tell | |||||||||||||||
I want to tell you something today. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
c. | Dit het niks met julle uit te waai nie. | ||||||||||||||
it have.PRS nothing with you.PL out to wave PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||
It has nothing to do with you. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
The second person plural julle can be used with a postmodifier, including a noun (7a) or NP (7b), a numeral (7c), or an indefinite pronoun (7d and 7e).
a. | Ag, toe nou, ek weet mos hoe is julle meisies. | ||||||||||||||
oh then now I know surely how be.PRS you.PL girls | |||||||||||||||
Oh, come now, I know how you girls are. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
b. | Dankie julle twee dames dat julle ons webblad deurgeblaai het. | ||||||||||||||
thanks you.PL two ladies that.COMP you.PL our webpage through.page.PST have.AUX | |||||||||||||||
Thanks you two ladies, that you paged through our webpage. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
c. | Dan is julle drie nou versorg. | ||||||||||||||
then be.PRS you.PL three now cared.for | |||||||||||||||
Then the three of you are taken care of. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
d. | En dit is reg dat julle elkeen 'n opinie lig. | ||||||||||||||
and it be.PRS right that.COMP you.PL everyone a opinion raise | |||||||||||||||
And it is good that each of you raises an opinion. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
e. | Nou kan julle almal saam malvalekkers braai en saam gesels tot slaaptyd. | ||||||||||||||
now can.AUX.MOD you.PL everybody together marshmallows roast and together talk until sleep.time | |||||||||||||||
Now all of you can roast marshmallows and talk until bedtime. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
The second person plural pronoun also has a shortened form jul. Although it is currently used predominantly as an attributive possessive pronoun in written language (Kirsten 2016:166), it is still occasionally used as subject (8a) and object (8b), sometimes also with postmodification (8c).
a. | Maar weet jul hoekom gaan dit so? | ||||||||||||||
but know you.PL why go it so | |||||||||||||||
But do you know why it goes like this? | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
b. | Maar ek wil jul vandag vertel van innerlike skoonheid. | ||||||||||||||
but I want.to.AUX.MOD you.PL today tell about inner beauty | |||||||||||||||
But today I want to tell you about inner beauty. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
c. | ...en sien ons spesiale kersboodskap aan jul elkeen. | ||||||||||||||
and see our special christmas.message to you.PL each.one | |||||||||||||||
...and see our special Christmass message to each of you. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
Afrikaans has an honorific second person pronoun, u you.HON, which is unmarked for case or number. It can be used to refer to a specific person, the addressee (9a), or to a group of people (9b).
a. | Dit beteken dat u minder vir dieselfde voordele-opsie betaal as iemand wat meer verdien. | ||||||||||||||
it mean that.COMP you.HON less for the.same benefit-option pay as somebody that.REL more earn | |||||||||||||||
It means that you pay less for the same benefit option as somebody that earns more. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
b. | Ons wil hê dat u mense van hoop moet wees. | ||||||||||||||
we want.to.AUX.MOD have.INF that.COMP you.HON people of hope must be.INF | |||||||||||||||
We want you to be people of hope. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
Similar to the unmarked second person plural pronoun, the honorific u can also be postmodified, for instance with a numeral (10a) or an indefinite pronoun (10b and 10c).
a. | Wie van u twee is die meeste my egte vader? | ||||||||||||||
who.REL of you.HON two be.PRS the most my real father | |||||||||||||||
Which of you two is my real father the most? | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
b. | Lekker dag aan u almal! | ||||||||||||||
nice day to you.HON everybody | |||||||||||||||
Have a nice day, everyone! | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
c. | Ten slotte wens ek u elkeen 'n wonderlike vakansie en 'n geseënde Kersfees toe. | ||||||||||||||
at.the close wish I you.HON everyone a wonderful vacation and a blessed Christmas PREP.PTCL | |||||||||||||||
Finally, I wish all of you a wonderful holiday and a merry Christmans. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
The honorific u is, however, perceived to be very formal and slightly outdated, although it is still seen as polite (Bosman & Otto 2015:387). The respondents in Bosman and Otto's study report that they do not use u very often, which is corroborated by the data in Kirsten (2016:169). Young speakers may even prefer not to be addressed with the very formal u(Bosman & Otto 2015:384).
There is another approach to showing respect in forms of address in Afrikaans. One part of the approach is to not call older individuals by their first names. Unfamiliar people might be called mevrou ma'am (11a) or meneer mister (11b), or by their titles such as dokter doctor (11c), but familiar people are often called tannie auntie (11d) or antie auntie if they are women or oom uncle (11e) if they are men. The other part of the approach to respectful and polite forms of address is that instead of using the second person singular pronoun jou you.SG later in a sentence or utterance, the speaker would repeat the form of address, as in (11a, 11d and 11f). That would also include familial relations such as Ma Mom or Pappa Daddy. People would even use that to refer to themselves, as in (11g and 11h).
a. | Maar Mevrou hoef nie bekommerd te wees nie, ons het Mevrou ingespuit. | ||||||||||||||
but Ma'am need.AUX.MOD not worried PTCL.INF be.INF PTCL.NEG we have.AUX Ma'am inject.PST | |||||||||||||||
But you don't have to worry, Ma'am, we injected you. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO, adapted |
b. | Lyk ek vir Meneer soos iemand wat 'n kind sal boelie? | ||||||||||||||
look I for Mister like somebody that a child will bully | |||||||||||||||
Do I look like someone who would bully a child, Sir? | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO, adapted |
c. | Ja, Dokter, maar dan is my derms vreeslik lastig. | ||||||||||||||
yes Doctor but then be.PRS my intestines very difficult | |||||||||||||||
Yes, Doctor, but then my intestines are very difficult. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
d. | Lief vir Tannie baie en hoop om Tannie gou te sien. | ||||||||||||||
love for Auntie much and hope for.COMP Auntie quick PTCL.INF see.INF | |||||||||||||||
Love you lots, Auntie, and I hope to see you again soon. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO, adapted |
e. | Maar as Oom nie omgee nie, ek gaan 'n tweede opinie hieroor kry. | ||||||||||||||
but if Uncle not mind PTCL.NEG I go a second opinion PN.about get | |||||||||||||||
But if you don't mind, Uncle, I'm going to get a second opinion about this. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
f. | Liewe Pa – dankie dat Pa in 1924 vir my geboorte gewag het. | ||||||||||||||
Dear Dad thanks that.COMP Dad in 1924 for my birth wait.PST have.AUX | |||||||||||||||
Dear Dad – thanks that you waited for my birth in 1924. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO, adapted |
g. | Maar Antie wil regtig nie 'n riller-prentjie vir jou hier skets nie. | ||||||||||||||
but Auntie want.to.AUX.MOD really not a horror-picture for you.SG here sketch PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||
But I really don't want to sketch a horror picture for you here. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
h. | Moet Pappa jou boudjies kom afvee? | ||||||||||||||
must.AUX.MOD Daddy your bum.DIM.PL come off.wipe | |||||||||||||||
Should Daddy come wipe your bum? | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO, adapted |
- Bosman, N. & Otto, A2015Moenie my 'jy' en 'jou' nie - die gebruik van u in die 21ste eeu.
- Bosman, N. & Otto, A2015Moenie my 'jy' en 'jou' nie - die gebruik van u in die 21ste eeu.
- Kirsten, J2016Grammatikale verandering in Afrikaans van 1911-2010.Thesis
- Kirsten, J2016Grammatikale verandering in Afrikaans van 1911-2010.Thesis
