
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
Subtraction (or subtractive morphology) is a type of non-concatenative morphological process whereby part of a word is deleted to create a new word or word form. The part that is removed can be either a:
- morpheme (e.g. eik < eik·e+boom oak tree, or foon < tele·foon telephone);
- syllable (e.g. avo < avokado avocado, based on /ɑ.vu.kɑ.du/);
- part of a syllable (e.g. prof < professor where the first syllable and the first letter of the second syllable are used, based on /pru.fɛ.sər/); or
- letters (e.g. SAUK < Suid-Afrikaanse Uitsaaikorporasie South African Broadcasting Corporation; ww. < werkwoord verb)
There is also no consensus on terminology and the demarcation of terms and concepts. One author might use abbreviation as a superordinate term, while another might use it to refer to a specific type of subtraction (as is done on Taalportaal). See Bauer (2004), and Crystal (2008) for discussions of terminology in this area.
The diagram below provides an overview of subtractive processes in Afrikaans, viewed next to concatenative processes (like compounding and affixation, not depicted here), and subtractive-and-concatenative processes (like blending). The diagram also serves to indicate how we use terminology in this section. These subtractive processes are discussed below, while a separate topic is devoted to gapping. We also include blending and contraction here, despite the fact that they are strictly speaking subtractive-and-concatenative processes.

Comparatively speaking, very little research has been done on subtractive processes in Afrikaans. Combrink (1990) provided a first bird's eye-view, while Coetzee (2000) focussed mainly on acronyms and initialisms, with very little attention to clipping.
Gapping (also known as conjunction reduction) is a kind of ellipsis construction in which one or more morphemes in a complex word can be omitted when the word occurs in a coordinate construction with another identically-structured complex word, as illustrated in example (1). For more details, see the topic on gapping in Afrikaans.
polisie+mann·e en -vrou·e < polisie+manne en polisie+vroue |
police+man·PL and -woman·PL |
policemen and policewomen |
Clipping (called inkorting or knipsel in Afrikaans) is a subtractive morphological process whereby a part or parts of an existing word or phrasal name is removed to form a new word with the same part-of-speech category and meaning, but often with a different usage (such as register change). Such clippings can be either morphemic, or non-morphemic, and can occur at the left-hand side (called procope or aphaeresis/apheresis), right-hand side (called apocope), or in the middle (called syncope) of words and phrasal names. The following examples suffice.
Morphemic procope: word | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
foon < tele·foon | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
phone < telephone |
Morphemic apocope: word | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a. | wilger < wilger+boom | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
willow < willow tree | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
b. | Sasol < Sasol+burg | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Sasol < Sasolburg (town in the Free State, South Africa) |
Morphemic syncope: word | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a. | was+poeier < was+goed+poeier | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
wash+powder < wash+stuff+powder | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
washing powder | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
b. | lang+vraag < lang+antwoord+vraag | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
long+question < long+answer+question | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
essay-type question | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
c. | speur+hoof < speur+diens+hoof | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
detect+head < detect+service+head | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
head of detective services / investigation bureau | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
d. | rubber+plantasie < rubber+boom+plantasie | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
rubber plantation < rubber tree plantation | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
e. | kern+sentrale < kern+krag+sentrale | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
nucleus+plant < nucleus+energy+plant | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
nuclear plant < nucleart energy plant |
Morphemic syncope: phrasal name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
sel+foon < sellulêr·e tele·foon | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
cellphone < cellular telephone |
Non-morphemic procope: word | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
spens < dis·pens | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
pantry (from dispensary) |
Non-morphemic apocope: word | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a. | dok < dokt·er | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
doc < doctor | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
b. | prof < pro·fess·or | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
prof < professor | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
c. | admin < ad·ministr·asie | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
admin < administration |
Non-morphemic syncope: word | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a. | Liz < Elizabeth | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
id. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
b. | dradio (< dra-radio) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
portable radio (< carry-radio) |
Combrink (1990:67) illustrated that one should not attempt to analyse cases like those in (4) above as compounds, because that would lead to incorrect syntactic and semantic patterns of compounding.
Back-formation (called truvorming in Afrikaans) is a subtractive process in which a less complex word is derived from a more complex word by removing a falsely-assumed affix; in as such, it is the inverse of affixation. Back-formation differs from clipping in the sense that clipping is (POS) category maintaining, while back-formation can change the word class. Since back-formation is a kind of re-interpretation/re-analysis/neoanalysis, it can be viewed as folk morphological analysis (Combrink 1990:56).
Compare for example the word pakk·asie luggage; caboodle, which comes from Dutch pakk·age. However, in a folk analysis, the word is re-analysed as a diminutive form, analogous to [[kaas](N)[ie](DIM)] small (piece of) cheese, so that pakk·asie is parsed as [[pakkaas](N)[ie](DIM)]. Hence, it is (falsely) assumed that a huge heap of luggage is called a pakkaas, based on the imagined diminutive pakkas·ie.
Booij (2002:163) noted that N+V compounds like stof+suig dust+suck to vacuum, and beeld+hou statue+cut to sculpt should also be analysed as back-formations, since verbal compounding is not a productive process in Germanic languages. However, if we know that these words come from stof+sui·er dust+suck·NMLZ vacuum cleaner, and beeld+hou·er statue+cut·NMLZ sculptor respectively, it is easy to explain their structure.
Shortening is the subtractive process whereby a new word is formed using the first letter(s) of another word, phrasal name, or word group. When the letters of the new word is pronounced by spelling out the letters one by one, it is called an initialism; when the letters are pronounced as a word, it is called an acronym; when the letters only occur in written form, it is called an abbreviation.
Initialism | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
SAUK < Suid-Afrikaanse Uitsaaikorporasie | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/ɛs a y ka/ | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
SABC < South African Broadcasting Company |
Acronym | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
PanSAT < Pan-Suid-Afrikaanse Taalraad | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/ˈpɑn.sat/ | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
PanSALB < Pan South African Language Board |
Abbreviation | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a. | dr. < dokter/doktor | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
dr. < doctor | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
b. | i.t.v. < in terme van | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
i.t.o. < in terms of |
A blend (or portmanteau word; called versmelting in Afrikaans) is a word formed through a combination of subtractive and concatenative processes to refer to a singular concept that is named by neither original word (stem) on its own. Prototypically, the end of one word, and the beginning of another word is firstly clipped, whereafter the remaining parts are concatenated to form a new word to refer to a new concept. The two component words, as well as the composite word usually all have the same part-of-speech category. A telling example is the word z=onkie (< zebra=donkie) [[z{ebra}](N)[{d}onkie](N)](N) zebra=donkey donkra, zebra hinny, which refers to a cross between a zebra and a donkey (a so-called zebroid).
In some cases, the resulting blend might seem like a compound consisting of a clipped word plus a full word. However, while compounds are also used to refer to singular concepts, the difference between compounds and blends lies in the fact that compounds don't share any fusible material, unlike the case of blends. The following contrasting examples should illustrate the difference.
a. | admin+gebou |
admin+building | |
administration building | |
[[admin{istrasie}](N)[gebou](N)](N) | |
[Here admin is analysed as a clipping that could also be used as an free-standing word.] |
a.' | sater=drag (< Saterdag=drag) |
Saturday=apparel | |
informal, weekend-like clothing | |
[[Saterd{ag}](PR)[{d}rag](N)](N) | |
[Note the fusible material d, a, and g between the two base words, indicated in bold above. Also interesting is the blending of capitalisation: While Saterdag is a proper noun and styled with a capital letter, its capitalisation convention is fused with that of the common noun drag, which is usually styled with no capital letters.] |
The following examples represent some typical categories in Afrikaans, but is most probably not representative of all possible categories.
a. | seks=pert (<seks=ekspert) | ||||||||||||||
sex=expert | |||||||||||||||
sexpert | |||||||||||||||
[Also consider: infor=maaklikheid (< informasie=vermaaklikheid) information=entertainment infotainment] |
b. | Zu=pta (< Zuma=Gupta) | ||||||||||||||
id. | |||||||||||||||
id. | |||||||||||||||
[Epithet for referring to the Zuma and Gupta alliance in South Africa in the 2010s.] |
c. | Jean=dré (< Jeanette=André) | ||||||||||||||
id. | |||||||||||||||
id. |
d. | bew=area (< bewaar=area) | ||||||||||||||
conserve=area | |||||||||||||||
conservation area | |||||||||||||||
[Also consider: w=oordenaar (< woord=moordernaar) word=murderer a person that tortures other people with his comments on social media] |
e. | storm=kopies (< stormloop=inkopies) | ||||||||||||||
rush=shopping | |||||||||||||||
panic buying by large numbers of people (e.g. in the context of a looming pandemic) | |||||||||||||||
(Beeld, 2020/03/17, poster) | |||||||||||||||
[Also consider: coron=ia (< coronavirus=histeria); Ramaforie (< Ramaphosa=euforie)] |
f. | uit=gemat (< uitgeput=afgemat) | ||||||||||||||
exhausted=worn.down | |||||||||||||||
extremely exhausted | |||||||||||||||
[Also consider: defini=slis (< definitief=beslis definitely=surely absolutely; lief=nis (< liefde=groetnis love=greetings endearing salutation; katte=wales (< kattekwaad=manewales) mischief=antics silly antics; b=als (< bas=vals) bass=false voice type between bass and false; pell=evisie (< pêl=televisie) pal=television friend who only visits to watch television, because s/he doesn't own a television] |
g. | pikkew=outer (< pikkewyn=kabouter) | ||||||||||||||
penguin=gnome | |||||||||||||||
(term of endearment) | |||||||||||||||
[Also consider: bokk=elossie (< bokkie=tokkelossie) goat.DIM=tokoloshe (term of endearment)] |
h. | j=impel (< jags=simpel) | ||||||||||||||
horny=foolish | |||||||||||||||
being foolish due to sexual cravings/activities | |||||||||||||||
[Also consider: sl=oer (< slet=hoer) slut=whore person of ill repute] |
i. | labra=hond (< labrador=skaaphond) | ||||||||||||||
labrador=border.collie | |||||||||||||||
borador | |||||||||||||||
[Also consider: hoen=taal (< hoender=tarentaal) chicken=guineafowl chicken-guineafowl cross] |
j. | ka=poen (< kak=pampoen) | ||||||||||||||
shit=pumpkin | |||||||||||||||
brownish orange colour | |||||||||||||||
[Also consider: hoe=ranje (< hoer=oranje) whore=orange colour of someone with artificial orange tan] |
k. | Engl=ikaans (< Engels=Afrikaans) | ||||||||||||||
English=Afrikaans | |||||||||||||||
contact dialect between English and Afrikaans | |||||||||||||||
[Also consider: Karo=maties (< Karoo=idiomaties) Karoo-like=idiomatic like the language of people from the Karoo region in South Africa] |
In some rare cases, more complex blending processes might be observed, as illustrated by the following examples.
a. | ko=te=fie (< koffie=tee) | ||||||||||||||
coffee=tea | |||||||||||||||
hybrid drink of coffee and tea mixed | |||||||||||||||
[This is a case almost similar to the interfixation process of swear word incorporation, like abso-fokken-luut abso-fucking-lutely. What distinguishes blending from Afrikaans interfixation is that the former combines two words from the same part-of-speech category to refer to a singular concept named by neither original word (stem) on its own, while the latter is only an emphatic version of the base word.] |
b. | voor=aan (< voor op die wa=aanmatigend) | ||||||||||||||
front of the wagon=overbearing | |||||||||||||||
being unbearably presumptuous | |||||||||||||||
[The idiom voor op die wa is used as an adjective to mean being forward, cheeky] |
c. | awesome=rowend (< awesome=asemrowend) | ||||||||||||||
awesome=breathtaking | |||||||||||||||
awesome, fantastic | |||||||||||||||
[This blend between English awesome and Afrikaans asemrowend not only relies on the fact that all the letters of awesome can be found in asemrowend, but also in the fact that asem can be pronounced in certain sociolects of Afrikaans to sound exactly like awesome.] |
d. | oli=krokke=noster=likke=akke=pikke=strys (< olifant=krokkedil=renoster=likkewaan=akkedis=pikkewyn=volstruis) |
elephant=crocodile=rhinoceros=iguana=lizard=penguin=ostrich | |
[This is a playful tongue-twister, similar to English supercalifragilisticexpialidocious.] |
Terminology regarding blending, as well as the scope of what should be included or excluded as blending, differ in the international literature. Fradin (2015) provided a comprehensive overview, as well as a discussion of the most pertinent matters related to different concepts. Bauer et al. (2013:458-462) also gave a good overview, specifically related to English, including a discussion on the distinction between blends ("which involve the loss of medial segmental material, as in brunch"), and clipped compounds or complex clippings ("which involve the loss of final material of both bases, as in modem < modulator-demodulator").
No research has been done on blends in Afrikaans. Combrink (1990) made a distinction between blends (with examples like stroo=is / str=uis (< strooi=huis) straw=house thatched hut, and kl=ong (< klein=jong) small=boy young boy), and clipped compounds (like motel (< motor=hotel) motor=hotel motel; called reduksiesamestelling by Combrink (1990)). He argued that blends develop naturally, while clipped compounds are made deliberately. Scholtz (1954), however, made the case that non-intentional blends are cases of so-called contamination, i.e. a language error due to confusion of similar sounding words, or synonyms (e.g. verkleineer to belittle as a contamination of verklein to belittle; to make smaller and kleineer to belittle). Many of the examples he listed as such "errors" have been institutionalised though, thus rendering the distinction between deliberate vs. accidental (or erroneous) to a large extent immaterial. Van Huyssteen (2017) also discarded this distinction, and only recognise blending as a word formation process.
A contraction is a combination of a word with a clitic (i.e. a reduced form of a function word) to form a single word with a (partially) phrasal function. For instance, the personal pronoun ek I could combine with the enclitic form -'s to be.COP to form the contraction ek's. This contraction functions as the predicator in a sentence like Ek='s moeg I=be.COP tired I'm tired. Also compare the following examples:
a. | di=s (< dit=is) | ||||||||||||||
it=be.COP | |||||||||||||||
it is / it's |
b. | moe=nie (< moet=nie) | ||||||||||||||
must.AUX.MOD=not | |||||||||||||||
mustn't; shouldn't |
c. | sy='s (< sy=is) | ||||||||||||||
she=be.COP | |||||||||||||||
she is |
d. | hy='t (< hy=het) | ||||||||||||||
he=have.AUX | |||||||||||||||
he has |
e. | opp=i (< op=die) | ||||||||||||||
on=the | |||||||||||||||
on the | |||||||||||||||
[This is a typical example of the phonological process of assimilation that is reflected in the orthography, albeit in more informal texts, and in the names of events, restaurants, etc.] |
The most telling difference between blends and contractions is that the former combines two words from the same part-of-speech category, while the later combines two words from different part-of-speech categories. Hence, the former denotes a singular concept, while the latter functions as (part of) a phrase.
- Bauer, Laurie2004A Glossary of MorphologyEdinburgh: Edinburgh University Press
- Bauer, Laurie, Lieber, Rochelle & Plag, Ingo2013The Oxford Reference Guide to English MorphologyOxford University Press
- Booij, Geert2002The morphology of DutchOxfordOxford University Press
- Coetzee, A.E2000Reduksieprosesse: produktiewe woordvormingsmiddele in Afrikaans.Tydskrif vir Taalonderrig = Journal for Language Teaching34311-322,
- Combrink, J.G.H1990Afrikaanse morfologie: capita exemplaria.Academica
- Combrink, J.G.H1990Afrikaanse morfologie: capita exemplaria.Academica
- Combrink, J.G.H1990Afrikaanse morfologie: capita exemplaria.Academica
- Combrink, J.G.H1990Afrikaanse morfologie: capita exemplaria.Academica
- Combrink, J.G.H1990Afrikaanse morfologie: capita exemplaria.Academica
- Crystal, David2008A Dictionary of Linguistics and PhoneticsOxford: Blackwell
- Scholz, H. v.d. M1954Taal en taalverskynsels: 'n inleiding tot die studie van die taalkunde.Nasionale Boekhandel
- Van Huyssteen, G.B2017Morfologie.(In Carstens, W.A.M. & Bosman, N.., reds. Kontemporêre Afrikaanse taalkunde. Pretoria : Van Schaik. 2de uitg., p. 177-214.)Van Schaik
