- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
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- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
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- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
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- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
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- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
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- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
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- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- Introduction to Frisian
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans Consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological Processes
- Phonotactics
- Segment inventory
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Introduction to Noun Phrases
- Introduction to Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution
- Predication
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Introduction to Verb Phrases
- Phonology
The very productive Germanic prefix fer- creates transitive or ergative verbs from verbs (e.g. keapjeto buy > ferkeapjeto sell), nouns (e.g. stienstone > ferstienjeto petrify) and adjectives (e.g. bliidglad > ferbliidzjeto gladden). In addition, some opaque bases can be found, for example ferkloffeto sprain (cf. *kloffe). In the case of a verbal base, the semantic contribution is often complex and diverse, but many derivations show some form of distancing. Derivations with a nominal or adjectival base often express a change.
The suffix fer- is very productive. It primarily takes verbs as input. The output is a transitive or ergative verb:
a. | Pyt praat | ||||||||||||||
Pyt talks | |||||||||||||||
Pyt talks |
b. | Pyt ferpraat syn tiid | ||||||||||||||
Pyt PREF-talks his time | |||||||||||||||
Pyt fritters away his time |
The verb prateto talk is inherently intransitive, whereas ferprate takes a direct object, i.e. syn tiidhis time in the example. In the example below, the ergativity of the verb ferreine is revealed by the auxiliary wêzeto be, here in the third person form is:
a. | It hat reind | ||||||||||||||
it has rained | |||||||||||||||
It has rained |
b. | It nôt is ferreind | ||||||||||||||
the grain is PREF-rained | |||||||||||||||
The grain is spoiled by rain |
Frisian shows a further restriction when it comes to input of already prefixed verbs. In Dutch, this is possible to a certain extent, but it is excluded in Frisian. An example is Dutch veronderstellento suppose which is ûnderstelle in Frisian. Or take Dutch verontrustento alarm, where the corresponding Frisian word is ûntrestigje.
This salience of transitivization performed by fer- may have been the reason that some loanwords, mainly from French, are prefixed by fer- even although their origin is already transitive. Examples are French diverter > Frisian ferdivedearjeto entertain, French ruiner > Frisian ferrinnewearjeto ruin or French affronter > Frisian feraffrontearjeto affront.
If the base form is a verb, the semantic contribution of fer- can quite generally be characterized as a movement, primarily away from a point, a form of a distancing, often in a sense that something gets lost. Examples that are in line with this very general interpretation are driuweto drive > ferdriuweto drive away, jeieto chase > ferjeieto chase awaysmiteto throw > fersmiteto reject.
Some more specific applications of the idea of distancing are:
- By some action of trade etc.: keapjeto buy > ferkeapjeto sell; hiereto hire (from someone) > ferhiereto rent (to someone); lotsjedraw lots > ferlotsjeto raffle off.
- By some form of loss: leareto learn > ferleareto forget (some skill). See also the opaque bases ferjitteto forget and ferliezeto lose.
- By some form of wasting: dobbeljeto dice > ferdobbeljeto dice away; dokterjeto be under medical treatment > ferdokterjelose money for medical treatment; dreameto dream > ferdreamewaste (one's time) by dreaming.
- By some form of damage denoted by the base verb: baarneto burn > ferbaarneto burn up; rotsjeto rot > ferrotsjeto disappear by rotting; sliteto wear > fersliteto wear out.
- By some form of damage created by too intensive use or action. The created verbs are usually reflexive. They denote that one finds oneself in an unwanted situation as a result of the action named in the base form. Some of the derivations denote that one exerts oneself physically or mentally as a result of the action named in the base form. Examples are iteto eat > jin feriteto overeat; feestjeto party > jin ferfeestjeto exert oneself in partying; swetseto blether > jin ferswetseto confound; rinneto walk > jin ferrinneto take the wrong turning; skreppeto grub > jin ferskreppeto strain oneself in grubbing. It should be noted that this category is remarkably more productive when compared with derivations with ver- in Dutch.
- By using up the base material implied by the base verb: bakketo bake > ferbakketo use by baking'; fuorjeto feed > ferfuorjeto use by feeding; tarreto live on > fertarreto spend.
- By causing something something to be no longer observable: bergjeto store > ferbergjeto hide; stopjeto put into > ferstopjeto conceal; swijeto be silent > ferswijeto keep silent about something.
Derivations with other verbal bases basically denote a change, comparable to what is going on with nominal or adjectival bases (see the section nouns or adjectives as base). The derivation can, for instance, refer to a change in form or substance, as in bouweto build > ferbouweto rebuild or klaaieto dress > ferklaaieto change clothes. More specifically, we see a replacement of old by new, as in fluorjeto construct a road > ferfluorjeto reconstruct a road.
There are, however, many fer-derivations with a verbal base that cannot easily be classified according to the categories above. Rather, they have an opaque meaning. Some examples are:
Base form | Derivation |
spuieto spit | ferspuieto disdain |
riedeto guess | ferriedeto betray |
slaanto hit | ferslaanto defeat |
moanjeto remind | fermoanjeto admonish |
stjerreto die | ferstjerreto die |
gunneto grant | fergunneto (be)grudge |
drageto carry | ferdrageto bear |
The prefix fer- can also take nouns and adjectives. In general, by prefixation some change is expressed, in principle in a causative or inchoative interpretation, although one of these possibilities may be suppressed for pragmatic reasons. With respect to base nouns, some important semantic sub-categories can be distinguished. The derivation may result in:
- Taking someone or something to another location: bêdbed > ferbêdzjeto bring (a patient) to another bed; heakhook > ferheakjeto hook up somewhere else; hûshouse > ferhúzjeto move.
- Covering something with the substance denoted by the noun: kopercopper > ferkoperjeto copper; nikkelnickel > fernikkeljeto nickel; sulversilver > fersulverjeto silver.
- Bringing about a change in form or substance inherent to the base noun: snipelsnippet > fersnipeljeto split up; stienstone > ferstienjeto petrify.
In the case of adjectival bases, the verbal derivation basically means 'making or getting A'. This process is quite productive. Some examples are:
Base | Derivation |
amtlikofficial | feramtlikjeto bureaucratize |
bitterbitter | ferbitterjeto embitter |
bliidglad | ferbliidzjeto gladden |
earmpoor | ferearmjeto become impoverished |
frjemdstrange | ferfrjemdzjeto become estranged |
ienfâldichsimple | ferienfâldigjeto simplify |
There are a few cases where the stem is an adjective in the comparative degree, as recognized by the comparative suffix -er. Examples are ferâlderjeto age, ferbetterjeto improve, ferminderjeto worsen and ferwylderjeto run wild. This runs counter to the general tendency for inflectional morphology to appear outside rather than inside derivational morphology.
It is assumed here that the derivations above have a noun or an adjective as base. Hoekstra (1998:155) claims that they actually have a verbal base. This would then be accomplished by conversion of the nominal or adjectival base to a verb, even in those cases in which the converted verb is not in use, and hence where it should be interpreted as a possible word. An advantage of this view would be that fer- only takes verbal bases. Moreover, Williams' Williams (1981)Right Head Hand Rule could be upheld. It should be noted that in some of the examples in this section a converted verb figures, for instance in bêdzje[[bêd](N)](V)to provide sleeping accomodation and heakje[[heak](N)](V)to hook (up). It is assumed here that the verbs ferbêdzje and ferheakje have been derived directly from the nouns bêdbed and heakhook.
Some fer- verbs do not have a base form which occurs independently (anymore). Examples are listed below:
Base form | Derivation |
*niele | fernieleto destroy |
*kloffe | ferkloffeto sprain |
*rêdzje | ferrêdzjeto almost fall apart by dryness |
*dwine | ferdwineto disappear |
*digenje | ferdigenjeto defend |
In a few cases fer- coexisted with a variant oer-, and over time, the derivation with fer- became obsolete. Examples are listed below:
Base form | Derivation | Obsolete variant |
winneto win | oerwinneto defeat | ferwinneto defeat |
libjeto live | oerlibjeto survive | ferlibjeto survive |
fuorjeto feed | oerfuorjeto overfeed | ferfuorjeto overfeed |
*nachtnight | oernachtsjeto spend the night | fernachtsjeto spend the night |
The prefix is pronounced as [fər]. However, the final segment /r/ is always deleted before a consonant, except before /h/, as is treated in Deletion of prefix-final /r/. Since the prefix contains a schwa, it never receives stress, e.g. ferGRIEmeto waste away, in line with the schwa restriction.
This topic is primarily based on Hoekstra (1998:147-148). A more extended overview of the semantic contribution of fer- can be found in Veen (1984-2011 s.v. fer-). Examples of prefixation by fer- in French loan words are given by Visser (2000:178-179). Some historical notes can be found in Stapelkamp (1955).
- Hoekstra, Jarich1998Fryske wurdfoarmingLjouwertFryske Akademy
- Hoekstra, Jarich1998Fryske wurdfoarmingLjouwertFryske Akademy
- Stapelkamp, Chris1955Vergunne - forgunne, FrisiacaEstrikken846-47
- Veen, Klaas F. van der et al1984-2011Wurdboek fan de Fryske taal - Woordenboek der Friese taalFryske Akademy
- Visser, Willem2000Frjemd wurdt eigener. Oer de âlde Frânske lienwurden yn it FryskIt Beaken62141-218
- Williams, Edwin1981On the notions `lexically related' and `head of a word'Linguistic Inquiry12254-274
- Dutch
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[80%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonological processes
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[76%] Dutch > Phonology > Accent & intonation
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[81%] Frisian > Phonology > Clitics
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[80%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes > /r/-deletion
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[80%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Schwa deletion
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[79%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes
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[79%] Frisian > Phonology > Segment inventory > Sequences involving s & plosives
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[79%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes
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[77%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes > Consonant cluster simplification: Overview
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[81%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation
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[80%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Nouns > Nominal suffixes
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[83%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Nominal suffixes > Noun as base
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[78%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Expression of irrealis
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