- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
The term adverbial is used to describe various types of lexical items or phrases that are employed to modify anything from other clausal constituents to speech acts. Adverbials are syntactically optional constituents of a clause, with the possible exception of the complements of a small set of verbs.
As far as their scope over other clausal constituents are concerned, adverbials may on the one hand be restricted to the modification of a single constituent, such as the adjective interessant interesting in the phrase heel interessant quite interesting, to having scope over an entire clause, as dalk perhaps in the case of Maria sing dalk môre Maria is perhaps singing tomorrow..
An important distinction is the one between adverbials having scope over an entire clause and adverbials having scope over the verb phrase (VP) only. A number of tests are indicative of whether a given adverbial is a clause or VP adverbial. For instance, Maria sing môre Maria sings tomorrow may be paraphrased as Maria sing en sy doen dit môre Maria is singing and she does it (will do it) tomorrow, as indication that môretomorrow has the status of VP adverbial in this clause.
Clausal adverbials typically precede VP adverbials in a clause, as in example (1a), where the clearly clausal adverbial miskien perhaps precedes the VP adverbial in haar tuisdorp in her home town. Some adverbials may function either as VP or as clause adverbial, as shown by the contrast between (1b) and (1c). If in haar tuisdorp is a clausal adverbial, it precedes miskien, which is a typical clause adverbial, as opposed to its VP adverbial use in (1b) where it follows the clausal adverbial.
| a. | Maria het miskien in haar tuisdorp gesing. | ||||||||||||||
| Maria have.AUX perhaps in her home.town sing.PST.PTCP | |||||||||||||||
| Maria perhaps sang in her home town. | |||||||||||||||
| b. | Maria het miskien in haar tuisdorp gesing. | ||||||||||||||
| Maria have.AUX perhaps in her home.town sing.PST.PTCP | |||||||||||||||
| Maria perhaps sang in her home town. | |||||||||||||||
| c. | Maria het in haar tuisdorp miskien gesing. | ||||||||||||||
| Maria have.AUX in her home.town perhaps sing.PST.PTCP | |||||||||||||||
| In her home town Maria perhaps sang. | |||||||||||||||
Note, in passing, that there is no strict ordering between adverbials and arguments, cf.
| Fred hardloop <die myl> waarskynlik <die myl> vinniger <?die myl> op dié baan. |
| Fred run <the mile> probably <the mile> faster <the mile> on this track |
| Fred probably ran the mile faster on this track. |
Adverbials differ according to whether they modify (3a) another clausal constituent, (3b) a verb phrase, (3c) a clause, (3d) a combinations of clauses, and (3e) a speech acts, e.g.
| a. | Chantal kook byna volmaak. | ||||||||||||||
| Chantal cook almost perfect | |||||||||||||||
| Chantal cooks almost perfectly. | |||||||||||||||
| b. | Sy kook voortreflik. | ||||||||||||||
| she cook excellent | |||||||||||||||
| She cooks excellently. | |||||||||||||||
| c. | Sy tree hopelik binnekort op. | ||||||||||||||
| she step hopefully soon up | |||||||||||||||
| She is hopefully appearing soon. | |||||||||||||||
| d. | Sy maak die gereg en dan sit sy dit voor. | ||||||||||||||
| she make the dish and then put she it forward | |||||||||||||||
| She make the dish and then dishes it up. | |||||||||||||||
| e. | Dit is om die waarheid te sê iets om te aanskou. | ||||||||||||||
| it is for.COMP the truth PTCL.INF say.INF something for.COMP PTCL.INF behold.INF | |||||||||||||||
| To tell the truth, it is something to behold. | |||||||||||||||
A number of tests can be applied to determine whether a given adverbial is a VP or a clause adverbial. The first two tests make a VP adverbial interpretation likely. In the first, a do paraphrase singles out an adverbial such as vinnig fast in (4a) which is a typical VP adverbial, cf. (4b). On the other hand, waarskynlik probably, which is a typical clausal adverbial, clearly fails the test, as in (4c).
| a. | Fred hardloop waarskynlik/vinnig op dié baan. | ||||||||||||||
| Fred run probably/fast on this track | |||||||||||||||
| Fred probably runs / runs fast on this track. | |||||||||||||||
| b. | Fred hardloop op dié baan en hy doen dit vinnig. | ||||||||||||||
| Fred run on this track and he do it fast | |||||||||||||||
| Fred runs on this track and he does it fast. | |||||||||||||||
| c. | *Fred hardloop op dié baan en hy doen dit waarskynlik. | ||||||||||||||
| Fred run on this track and he do it probably | |||||||||||||||
| To mean: Fred runs on this track and he probably does it. | |||||||||||||||
The second test, which is based on entailment, indicates that the truth value of the clause remains unaltered when a VP adverbial is removed, as in (5a), but not when a clause adverbial is removed, as in (5b).
| a. | Fred hardloop vinnig op dié baan > Fred hardloop op dié baan. | ||||||||||||||
| Fred run fast on this track > Fred runs on this track. | |||||||||||||||
| Fred tuns fast on this track > Fred runs on this track. | |||||||||||||||
| b. | Fred hardloop waarskynlik op dié baan ||> Fred hardloop op dié baan. | ||||||||||||||
| Fred run probably on this track ||> Fred run on this track | |||||||||||||||
| Fred probably runs on this track; Fred runs on this track. | |||||||||||||||
In contrast, a clause adverbial is recognisable when transferred to a preceding main clause, cf.
| a. | Dit is waarskynlik (so) dat Fred op dié baan hardloop. | ||||||||||||||
| it is probably so that.COMP Fred on this track run | |||||||||||||||
| It is probably so that Fred runs on this track. | |||||||||||||||
| b. | *Dit is vinnig (so) dat Fred op dié baan hardloop. | ||||||||||||||
| it is fast so that.COMP Fred on this track run | |||||||||||||||
| To mean: It is fast so that Fred runs on this track. | |||||||||||||||
In general, the adverbial having the larger scope, or whose scope includes that of another, precedes the other, so that a clause adverbial appears before a VP adverbial, as in example (7a). Example (7b) is infelicitous because the VP adverbial with narrower scope precedes the clausal adverbial with wider scope.
| a. | Fred hardloop waarskynlik vinnig op dié baan. | ||||||||||||||
| Fred run probably fast on this track. | |||||||||||||||
| Fred probably runs fast on this track. | |||||||||||||||
| b. | *Fred hardloop vinnig waarskynlik op dié baan. | ||||||||||||||
| Fred run fast probably on this track | |||||||||||||||
| To mean: Fred probably runs fast on this track. | |||||||||||||||
A distinction that plays an important part in the further discussion is that between VP adverbials and clausal adverbials, on the other. VP adverbials function as semantic modifiers only of the predicate of the verb phrase, but by contrast, clause or sentence adverbials take scope over an entire proposition. Thus vinnig fast and op die baan on the track in (8a) refer to how and where the running is taking place, while waarskynlik probably in (8b) refers to the likelihood of Fred's running.
| a. | Fred hardloop vinnig op die baan. | ||||||||||||||
| Fred run fast on the track | |||||||||||||||
| Fred runs fast on the track. | |||||||||||||||
| b. | Fred gaan waarskynlik hardloop. | ||||||||||||||
| Fred go.AUX.MOD probably run.INF | |||||||||||||||
| Fred is probably going to run. | |||||||||||||||
Some adverbials, such as the locative in die wedstrydreeks in the match series, may function as a VP adverbial when occurring after a clause adverbial such as waarskynlik probably (cf. (9a)), or as a clause adverbial when occurring before a clause adverbial (cf. (9b)), as the tests indicate.
| a. | Fred speel waarskynlik in die wedstrydreeks. |
| Fred play probably in the match.series | |
| Fred is probably playing in the match series. |
| a.' | Fred speel waarskynlik en hy doen dit in die wedstrydreeks. |
| Fred play probably and he do it in the match.series | |
| Fred is probably playing and he is doing it in the match series. |
| b. | Fred speel in die wedstrydreeks waarskynlik môre. |
| Fred play in the match.series probably tomorrow | |
| In the match series Fred is probably playing tomorrow. |
| b.' | Dit is in die wedstrydreeks so dat Fred waarskynlik môre speel. |
| it is in the match.series so that.COMP Fred probably tomorrow play.PRS | |
| It is so in the match series that Fred is probably playing tomorrow. |
The term adverbial is used to describe various types of lexical items or phrases which are employed to modify anything from other clausal constituents to entire speech acts. Adverbials are usually optional in the sense that a complete proposition can still be formed if they are removed. However, a number of verbs, such as woon to live, duur to last, kos to cost and weeg to weigh have obligatory complements which seem adverbial-like, if only for pragmatic reasons, e.g.
| a. | Estelle woon in Melville. |
| Estelle live in Melville | |
| Estelle lives in Melville. |
| a.' | *Estelle woon. |
| Estelle live | |
| To mean: Estelle lives. |
| b. | Die pakkie weeg 10 kilo. |
| the parcel weigh 10 kilo | |
| The parcel weighs 10 kilos. |
| b.' | *Die pakkie weeg. |
| the parcel weigh | |
| To mean: The parcel weighs. |
