
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
Just as the adverb of manner and degree sa so may follow or precede negation, so may the combination of this adverb with a following adjective precede or follow negation. The following examples illustrate this:
a. | Hjoed is it net sa kâld | ||||||||||||||
today is it not so cold | |||||||||||||||
Today it is not so cold |
b. | Hjoed is it sa kâld net | ||||||||||||||
today is it so cold not | |||||||||||||||
Today, it is not so cold |
This first example represents a word order which is neutral with respect to presuppositions. The second example is presuppositional. It is the second order which is characteristically Frisian. The presence of the adverb of degree is crucial for placement of the predicative constituent to the left of negation (scrambling). If the adverb of degree is absent, then placement of the predicative constituent to the left of negation is ungrammatical, as shown below:
a. | *Dizze is rottich net | ||||||||||||||
this is rotten not | |||||||||||||||
This one is not rotten |
b. | Dizze is net rottich | ||||||||||||||
this is not rotten | |||||||||||||||
This one is not rotten |
The presuppositional order sa-Adj-Neg can also be found in case it is followed by a constituent which provides a fixed point for the degree denoted by the adjective. This constituent may semantically be related to an entity. It may have the form of a comparative constituent, as in the examples below:
a. | Hja is sa moai net as har suster | ||||||||||||||
she is as pretty not as her sister | |||||||||||||||
She is rather less pretty than her sister |
b. | De boer wie dochs sa min net as de minsken ha woene | ||||||||||||||
the farmer was DcP so bad not as the people have wanted | |||||||||||||||
The farmer was not as bad as people made him out to be |
c. | It mantsje waard njonkenlytsen âld en it hynder ek. Sa âld net as syn baas, mar wol gauwer ynein | ||||||||||||||
the man became gradually old and the horse also so old not as his boss but indeed faster tired | |||||||||||||||
He got older and so did the horse. Not quite as old as his boss, but it did get tired sooner |
d. | Hy wie sa fet en sa grou net as dy't by it Maitiid fongen waard | ||||||||||||||
he was so fat and so big not as that by the maytime caught was | |||||||||||||||
It was not as fat and big as the one caught in May |
Each sentence expresses that the degree ascribed to the subject falls below the degree described by the comparative constituent. In addition, there is a presupposition that the implied degree ascribed to the subject is significantly lower than the one ascribed to the comparative constituent. In addition, the constituent providing a fixed degree may semantically be related to a proposition. This proposition may have the form of a clause, as in the following examples:
a. | Hy wie sa dom net dat er him it bloed hjit makke | ||||||||||||||
he was so foolish not that he him the blood hot made | |||||||||||||||
He was not so foolish that he would get worked up |
b. | Ik sil sa dryst net wêze om te ferheljen wat er sei | ||||||||||||||
I shall so bold not be for to tell what he said | |||||||||||||||
I will not be so bold as to tell what he said |
c. | Oan har ferhaal te hearren stiene sy der beide min foar, mar it koe sa min net wêze of der kaam wol in goede set op it boerd | ||||||||||||||
from her story to hear stood they there both bad for but it could so bad not be or there came DcP a good move on the board | |||||||||||||||
From what they said, they were in a bad position, but it could not be so bad that they did not produce a good move on the board |
d. | Hy woe sa ûnfatsoenlik net wêze en sjoch der fuort yn | ||||||||||||||
he wanted so indecent not be and see R immediately in | |||||||||||||||
He did not want to be so rude as to look in it immediately |
Each sentence expresses that the degree ascribed to the subject falls below the degree described or implicated by the comparative constituent. The sentence in (4a) expresses that the actual degree of foolishness of the subject is rather less than the hypothetical degree of foolishness that the subject would have had if he had become worked up. The comparative constituent is realised as an embedded tensed clause in (4a). It is realised as an infinitival clause in (4b). It is realised as a balance clause in (4c): a main clause introduced by the disjunct of or. The example in (4d) features a comparative clause realised as an Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo, that is, an infinitival clause featuring a verb form that is homophonous to the imperative and that occurs in the first position of the clause. The adverb sa so appears to be specified by the following clause, hence it can be viewed as an anticipatory pronoun.
The presuppositional order cannot be used for deictic reference. This order is ungrammatical in a pointing context: in case somebody indicates with the fingers how small something is, this cannot be rendered by sa:
a. | *It is sa lyts net | ||||||||||||||
it is so small not | |||||||||||||||
It is not that small |
b. | It is net sa lyts | ||||||||||||||
it is not so small | |||||||||||||||
It is not that small |
The neutral order must be used. Furthermore, the presuppositional order presupposes that the degree of the adjective is substantial. As a result, the following sentence is weird:
a. | *In mûs is sa grut net as in liuw | ||||||||||||||
a mouse is so big not as a lion | |||||||||||||||
A mouse is not as big as a lion |
b. | In mûs is net sa grut as in liuw | ||||||||||||||
a mouse is not so big as a lion | |||||||||||||||
A mouse is not so big as a lion |
In addition, the presuppositional order does not allow the comparative phrase to be found to the left of the verb at the end of the middle field:
a. | *Omdat er sa grut net as syn broer is | ||||||||||||||
because he is so big not as his brother is | |||||||||||||||
Because he is not as big as his brother |
b. | Omdat er net sa grut as syn broer is | ||||||||||||||
because he is not so big as his brother is | |||||||||||||||
Because he is not as big as his brother |
Instead, the comparative comnstituent must follow the verb at the end of the middle field: put differently, it must be extraposed:
a. | Omdat er sa grut net is as syn broer | ||||||||||||||
because he is so big not is as his brother | |||||||||||||||
Because he is not as big as his brother |
b. | Omdat er net sa grut is as syn broer | ||||||||||||||
because he is not so big as his brother is | |||||||||||||||
Because he is not as big as his brother |
The construction can be intensified by adverbs such as hast quite and lang by far. Such adverbs may either be put in front of the presupposed construction as a whole or they can intervene between the Adjective Phrase (AP) and negation, as shown below:
a. | Sels fine je it faaks lang sa moai net as oaren | ||||||||||||||
yourself find you it maybe long so nice not as others | |||||||||||||||
Maybe you yourself do not like it half as much as other people |
b. | Sels fine je it faaks sa moai lang net as oaren | ||||||||||||||
yourself find you it maybe so nice long not as others | |||||||||||||||
Maybe you yourself do not like it half as much as other people |
The neutral order does not allow the intensifier and negation to be separated:
a. | Sels fine je it faaks lang net sa moai as oaren | ||||||||||||||
yourself find you it maybe long not so nice as others | |||||||||||||||
Maybe you yourself do not like it half as much as other people |
b. | *Sels fine je it faaks net sa moai lang as oaren | ||||||||||||||
yourself find you it maybe not so nice long as others | |||||||||||||||
Maybe you yourself do not like it half as much as other people |
c. | *Sels fine je it faaks net lang sa moai as oaren | ||||||||||||||
yourself find you it maybe not long so nice as others | |||||||||||||||
Maybe you yourself do not like it half as much as other people |
The generalisation seems to be that negation may not precede the intensifier. The intensifier hast normally means 'almost'. If it occurs in the presuppositional construction, however, it must mean quite:
Doe like alles hast sa slim net mear, Teade doarst it oansjen |
then seemed everything almost so bad not anymore Teade dared it observe |
Then everything did not seem quite as bad, Teade dared to have a look at it |
It may be upposed that hast developed this meaning in this construction by being in the scope of negation. So the sentence expresses not just that the actual degree falls below a specific point, but that it falls below a stretch of degrees (expressed by the intensifier) below the specific degree. Anyhow, this meaning of hast is mostly found in the presuppositional construction, although it is sometimes found in the neutral order.
