
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
The initial position of the clause is the position that precedes the first verb of a main clause, or precedes the complementiser or subordinator of a dependent clause. This position can be filled by one constituentonly. By default, the subject is the first constituent of a main clause, but through topicalisation, specific or wh-interrogative formation and the existential daar there construction, other elements can occupy the initial position, which will leave the subject in the middle field of the clause, usually immediately after the verb in second position. Typical options for the initial position of the main clause are illustrated in example (1).
a. | Die mense het van die platteland af gekom. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
[(SUB) die mense] [(V2) het] [(ADV) van die platteland af] [(VF) gekom] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
the people have.AUX from the countryside off come.PST | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The people came from the countryside. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
PCSA | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
[Subject in initial position] |
b. | Hemde het ons gedra. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
[(DO) hemde] [(V2) het] [(SUB) ons] [(VF) gedra] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
shirts have.AUX we wear.PST | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Shirts we wore. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
PCSA | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
[Topicalisation] |
c. | Wanneer het dit gebeur? | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
[(WH) wanneer] [(V2) het] [(SUB) dit] [(VF) gebeur] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
when have.AUX it happen.PST | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
When did it happen? | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
PCSA | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
[Specific interrogative] |
d. | Daar was drie baie uitstekende hotelle in die dorp. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
[(EXPL) daar] [(V2) was] [(SUB) drie baie uitstekende hotelle] [(ADV) in die dorp] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
there be.PRT three very excellent hotels in the town | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
There were three outstanding hotels in the town. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
PCSA | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
[Existential daar] |
The initial position of a is the position preceding the complementiser or subordinator. In the case of relative clauses and wh-interrogative complement clauses, the relativiser or interrogative element comes first, but usually there is no overt complementiser. The exception occurs in a subset of wh-interrogative complement clauses that are infinitive, where the interrogative does precede the complementiser omin order/for. Otherwise, overt complementisers like dat that, of whether/if and om in order/for, are not preceded by any element of the dependent clause. In the case of clauses introduced by a subordinator, typically an adverbial clause, there is no material preceding the subordinator at all. The clause-initial options of the dependent clauses are illustrated by the examples in (2). The word order after the initial position, subordinator and/or complementiser is usually filled by the middle field, with all the verbs clustered together in the final position, with the exception of wh-interrogative complement clauses, illustrated by (2d), where two word order variants are attested, with a verb immediately after the wh-interrogative, or with all verbs in final position.
a. | Voor ons Johannesburg toe gegaan het... | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
[(SUBORD) voor] [(MF) ons Johannesburg toe] [(VF) gegaan het] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
before we Johannesburg towards go.PST have.AUX | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Before we went to Johannesburg... | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
PCSA | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
[Adverbial clause with initial subordinator] |
b. | Hulle gaan kyk [of hulle vir Ouma hangers kan kry in die dorp]. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
[(COMP) of] [(MF) hulle vir Ouma hangers] [(VF) kan kry] [(PV) in die dorp] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
they go.LINK look.INF if.COMP they for Grandma hangers can.AUX.MOD get.INF in the town | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
They are going to see if they can get clothes hangers for Grandma in town. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
PCSA | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
[Complement clause with initial complementiser] |
c. | grond [wat aan my oupa se twee susters behoort het] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
[(REL) wat] [(MF) aan my oupa se twee susters] [(VF) behoort het] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
land that.REL to my grandpa PTCL.GEN two sisters belong.PST have.AUX | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
land that belonged to my grandpa's two sisters. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
PCSA | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
[Relative clause with initial relativiser] |
d. | Jy weet [hoe om vir jouself te sorg]. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
[(WH hoe] [(COMP) om] [(MF) vir jouself] [(VF) te sorg] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
you know.PRS how for.COMP for yourself PTCL.INF care | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
You know how to take care of yourself. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
PCSA | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
[Infinitive wh-interrogative clause with initial wh-interrogative then complementiser] |
d. | Toe hy hoor [wat die plan was]... |
when he hear.PRS what the plan be.PRT | |
When he heard what the plan was... | |
[(WH) wat] [(MF) die plan] [(VF) was] | |
PCSA | |
[Finite wh-interrogative clause with initial wh-interrogative] |
d.' | ...om te hoor [wat sê hulle tog van Calvinia]... |
COMP to hear.INF what say.PRS they anyway about Calvinia | |
...to hear what they say about Calvinia anyway. | |
[(WH) wat] [(V2) sê] [(MF) hulle tog van Calvinia] | |
PCSA | |
[Finite wh-interrogative clause with initial wh-interrogative] |
A number of main clauses have no constituent preceding the first verb. In these cases, the initial verb is followed by the middle field and there is no separate constituent in the clause-initial position. These main clause types include general interrogatives and imperatives, as illustrated by the examples in (3).
a. | Kan ek 'n vriend saambring? | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
[(V1) kan] [(MF) ek 'n vriend] [(VF) saambring] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
can.AUX.MOD I a friend along.bring.PST | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Can I bring a friend along? | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
PCSA | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
[Verb-first in general interrogative] |
b. | Kom maar in. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
[(V1) kom] [(MF) maar] [(VF) in] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
come.IMP but in | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Do come in. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
PCSA | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
[Verb-first in imperative] |
The three main types of possibilities for the initial position of the clause and the specific manifestations thereof are discussed in the following sections:
