- Dutch1
- Frisian
- Saterfrisian
- Afrikaans
-
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
-
- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Compositions
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
-
- General
- Morphology
- Morphology
- 1 Word formation
- 1.1 Compounding
- 1.1.1 Compounds and their heads
- 1.1.2 Special types of compounds
- 1.1.2.1 Affixoids
- 1.1.2.2 Coordinative compounds
- 1.1.2.3 Synthetic compounds and complex pseudo-participles
- 1.1.2.4 Reduplicative compounds
- 1.1.2.5 Phrase-based compounds
- 1.1.2.6 Elative compounds
- 1.1.2.7 Exocentric compounds
- 1.1.2.8 Linking elements
- 1.1.2.9 Separable Complex Verbs and Particle Verbs
- 1.1.2.10 Noun Incorporation Verbs
- 1.1.2.11 Gapping
- 1.2 Derivation
- 1.3 Minor patterns of word formation
- 1.1 Compounding
- 2 Inflection
- 1 Word formation
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Adjectives and adjective phrases (APs)
- 0 Introduction to the AP
- 1 Characteristics and classification of APs
- 2 Complementation of APs
- 3 Modification and degree quantification of APs
- 4 Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative
- 5 Attribution of APs
- 6 Predication of APs
- 7 The partitive adjective construction
- 8 Adverbial use of APs
- 9 Participles and infinitives as APs
- Nouns and Noun Phrases (NPs)
- 0 Introduction to the NP
- 1 Characteristics and Classification of NPs
- 2 Complementation of NPs
- 3 Modification of NPs
- 3.1 Modification of NP by Determiners and APs
- 3.2 Modification of NP by PP
- 3.3 Modification of NP by adverbial clauses
- 3.4 Modification of NP by possessors
- 3.5 Modification of NP by relative clauses
- 3.6 Modification of NP in a cleft construction
- 3.7 Free relative clauses and selected interrogative clauses
- 4 Partitive noun constructions and constructions related to them
- 4.1 The referential partitive construction
- 4.2 The partitive construction of abstract quantity
- 4.3 The numerical partitive construction
- 4.4 The partitive interrogative construction
- 4.5 Adjectival, nominal and nominalised partitive quantifiers
- 4.6 Kind partitives
- 4.7 Partitive predication with a preposition
- 4.8 Bare nominal attribution
- 5 Articles and names
- 6 Pronouns
- 7 Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- 8 Interrogative pronouns
- 9 R-pronouns and the indefinite expletive
- 10 Syntactic functions of Noun Phrases
- Adpositions and Adpositional Phrases (PPs)
- 0 Introduction to the PP
- 1 Characteristics and classification of PPs
- 2 Complementation of PPs
- 3 Modification of PPs
- 4 Bare (intransitive) adpositions
- 5 Predication of PPs
- 6 Form and distribution of adpositions with respect to staticity and construction type
- 7 Adpositional complements and adverbials
- Verbs and Verb Phrases (VPs)
- 0 Introduction to the VP in Saterland Frisian
- 1 Characteristics and classification of verbs
- 2 Unergative and unaccusative subjects and the auxiliary of the perfect
- 3 Evidentiality in relation to perception and epistemicity
- 4 Types of to-infinitival constituents
- 5 Predication
- 5.1 The auxiliary of being and its selection restrictions
- 5.2 The auxiliary of going and its selection restrictions
- 5.3 The auxiliary of continuation and its selection restrictions
- 5.4 The auxiliary of coming and its selection restrictions
- 5.5 Modal auxiliaries and their selection restrictions
- 5.6 Auxiliaries of body posture and aspect and their selection restrictions
- 5.7 Transitive verbs of predication
- 5.8 The auxiliary of doing used as a semantically empty finite auxiliary
- 5.9 Supplementive predication
- 6 The verbal paradigm, irregularity and suppletion
- 7 Verb Second and the word order in main and embedded clauses
- 8 Various aspects of clause structure
- Adjectives and adjective phrases (APs)
-
- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
Derivational and inflectional processes may give rise to sequences of two adjacent schwa syllables. There is a rhythmic tendency in language to alternate stressed and unstressed syllables or, put differently, to avoid stress clashes and lapses. This section deals with how schwa deletion proceeds in dissolving lapses.
Lapses arise in many situations. An important one is with verbs of the second weak class (see paradigm of class II) the stem of which ends in the sequence schwa + (mostly sonorant) consonant; examples are provided in (1):
Examples of verbs of the second weak class with a stem ending in schwa + sonorant | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
hippel(je) | /hɪpəl/ | to hop, to frolic | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
sipel(je) | /sipəl/ | to seep, to trickle | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
siper(je) | /sipər/ | to seep, to trickle | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
offer(je) | /ɔfər/ | to sacrifice (to) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
azem(je) | /a:zəm/ | to breathe | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
wazem(je) | /va:zəm/ | to steam | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
oefen(je) | /ufən/ | to train, to practise | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ferdigen(je) | /fərdi:ɣən/ | to defend | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
huldig(je) | /høldəɣ/ | to honour, to pay tribute (to) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
einig(je) | /ajnəɣ/ | to finish, to conclude |
The letter <i> of the stems huldig- and einig- represents schwa.
In the second and third person singular of the present tense, the stems of these verbs are inflected with -est and -et, respectively:
The full forms of the second and third person singular tense of the verbs in (1) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
hippelest/hippelet | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
sipelest/sipelet | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
siperest/siperet | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
offerest/offeret | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
azemest/azemet | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
wazemest/wazemet | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
oefenest/oefenet | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ferdigenest/ferdigenet | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
huldigest/huldiget | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
einigest/einiget |
Inflection results in a lapse. Since such a configuration is not forbidden, both schwas can be realized.
A lapse, however, is a less favoured configuration, so there will be phonological pressure to resolve it. This is accomplished by the deletion of one of the schwas. It is quite common for the suffixal schwa to delete, see the realizations in (3):
The forms in (2) with the schwa of the suffix deleted | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
hippelst/hippelt | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
sipelst/sipelt | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
siperst/sipert | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
offerst/offert | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
azemst/azemt | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
wazemst/wazemt | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
oefenst/oefent | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ferdigenst/ferdigent | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
huldichst/huldicht | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
einichst/einicht |
According to the conventions of Frisian orthography, <ɡ> does not occur in front of <s> and <t> within one and the same word. In this position the digraph <ch> is used, so einigest and einiget occur next to einichst and einicht.
Due to the deletion of suffixal schwa consonants become adjacent, which triggers several phonological processes:
- /r/-deletion (see /r/-deletion in complex words derived with a consonantal suffix): siperst/sipert is realized as [sipə(s)t];
- vowel nasalization (see vowel nasalization): ferdigenst is realized as [fədi:ɣə̃st];
- voice adaptation (see regressive voice assimilation of obstruent sequences): huldich(s)t /høldəɣ+(s)t)/ and einich(s)t /ajnəɣ+(s)t)/ are realized as [høldəx(s)t)] and [a.jnəx(s)t)], respectively.
The schwa syllable of the reduced form has to accommodate all the consonants of the two schwa syllables of the full form. The resulting coda is far more complex than that of schwa syllables in simplex words, which do not end in the sequence schwa + consonant cluster (see schwa). This is an indication that we are dealing with derived/inflected forms here.
Deletion of the schwa of the verb stem results in the realizations in (4):
The forms in (2) with the schwa of the verb stem deleted | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
hipplest/hipplet | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
siplest/siplet | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
siprest/sipret | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
offrest/offret | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
aazmest/aazmet | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
waazmest/waazmet | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
oefnest/oefnet | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ferdiignest/ferdiignet | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
huldgest/huldget | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
eingest/einget |
These forms occur, be it mainly in poetry, for reasons of metre (the number of syllables of a line). There are some problematic aspects concerning the outcome of deletion here. Firstly, in hip-plest/hip-plet, si-plest/si-plet, si-prest/si-pret and of-frest/of-fret the schwa syllable has a complex onset (pl-, pr-, fr-), which in the unmarked case it has not. Secondly, in aaz-mest/aaz-met, waaz-mest/waaz-met, oef-nest/oef-net and ferdiig-nest/ferdiig-net, there is a bad syllable contact, for the left-hand syllable ends less sonorously (viz. in an obstruent) than the right-hand one begins (viz. with a nasal consonant). The syllable contact in huld-gest/huld-get is also far from ideal, since the left-hand syllable ends as sonorously as the right-hand one begins. Thirdly, in ein-gest/ein-get, the fricative [ɣ] is expected to induce nasalization of the vowel (diphthong) preceding [n] (see the consonants conditioning vowel nasalization as continuant segments), but it doesn't. This may be an indication that the fricative, in syllable-initial position, is realized a little plosive-like, whereas vowel nasalization is conditioned by continuant consonants. It may also indicate that schwa not (fully) deletes here, thereby rendering vowel nasalization impossible, for which [n] and the fricative must be adjacent. In spite of all this, schwa deletion is not forbidden here.
In Frisian orthography the long vowel /a:/ is represented by either double aa or single a, depending on the syllable type in which it occurs: by a in an open and by aa in a closed syllable. That is why azem(e)st/azem(e)t and wazem(e)st/wazem(e)t in (2) and (3) are spelled with a and aazmest/aazmet and waazmest/waazmet in (4) with aa. In much the same vein the long vowel /i:/ is represented by either ii (closed syllable) or i (open syllable), see ferdigen(e)st/ferdigen(e)t in (2) and (3) and ferdigenen in (5) vs. ferdiignest/ferdiignet in (4) and ferdiignen in (6).
In the plural of the past tense, the stems of these verbs are inflected with -en:
The full forms of the plural past tense of the verbs in (1) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
hippelen | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
sipelen | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
siperen | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
offeren | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
azemen | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
wazemen | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
oefenen | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ferdigenen | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
huldigen | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
einigen |
The above forms may be realized without the schwa of the verb stem, i.e. the left-hand schwa, see (6):
The forms in (5) with the schwa of the verb stem deleted | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
hipplen | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
siplen | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
sipren | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
offren | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
aazmen | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
waazmen | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
oefnen | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ferdiignen | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
huldgen | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
eingen |
Just like the forms in (4), those in (6) mainly occur in poetry and they meet with the same problems: the schwa syllable has a complex onset (p{l/r}-) in the uppermost four forms, there is a bad syllable contact in the following five forms, whereas the bottommost form is problematic with respect to vowel nasalization.
Let us now turn to the realization without the schwa of the suffix, shown in (7):
The forms in (5) with the schwa of the suffix deleted | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
hippeln | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
sipeln | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
sipern | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
offern | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
azemn | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
wazemn | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
oefenn | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ferdigenn | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
huldign | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
einign |
As a result of schwa deletion, suffix-final /n/ ends up as a stray consonant. Being in word-final position, it must be incorporated into the schwa syllable on its left. This procedure, however, is not without difficulties and problems. Firstly, the seventh and eighth forms, oefenn and ferdigenn, end in two /n/ s, a sequence which is subjected to consonant degemination (see degemination). In the resulting forms, oefen and ferdigen, nothing of the suffix -en would be left or, put differently, these inflected forms would have become indistinguishable from the verb stem, which is an unfavourable outcome. Secondly, in the top six forms, /n/ must form a word-final cluster with /{l/r/m}/, which is impossible (see word-final sequences of a liquid and a nasal and word-final sequences of a nasal and a nasal). This might be circumvented by turning /n/ into a syllabic consonant (see syllabic sonorant consonants). In itself, the final clusters [-{l/r}n̩] are all right; this also holds of [-mm̩], which would derive from [-mn̩] (see progressive place assimilation). The occurrence of a syllable headed by a sonorant consonant, however, is most common with an obstruent plosive as an onset (see the nature of the onset consonant). However, no such consonant precedes /n/ in these forms. Moreover, the least favoured position in a three-syllable word for such a syllable (a superweak syllable) is the one following a sequence of a syllable headed by a full vowel (a strong syllable) and a schwa syllable (a weak syllable), i.e. the right-most position of the strength pattern [strong-weak-superweak]. Now, this is exactly the pattern which the forms in (7) would display. Thirdly, in the bottommost two forms, the syllable headed by [n̩] would have the fricative [ɣ] as an onset; as noted above, this is a disfavoured kind of onset for a superweak syllable. Finally, whereas it might be considered the goal of schwa deletion to reduce the number of syllables of the word in order to optimize its rhythmic structure, the result of syllabification is that the number of syllables remains the same and that the rhythmic structure deteriorates. All in all then there seems to be every reason not to delete the schwa of the suffix here.
So far, the forms considered all have final schwa syllables with a coda. There are also inflectional and derivational suffixes which consist of schwa only. A case in point is the first and third person singular suffix of the past tense and that of the past participle of the verbs in (1); see (8):
The full forms of the first and third person singular past tense and that of the past participle of the verbs in (1) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
hippele | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
sipele | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
sipere | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
offere | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
azeme | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
wazeme | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
oefene | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ferdigene | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
huldige | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
einige |
Here as well, there will be phonological pressure to resolve the lapse. In this case, however, this is only accomplished by deletion of the schwa of the verb stem, as shown by the forms in (9):
The forms in (8) with the schwa of the verb stem deleted | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
hipple | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
siple | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
sipre | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
offre | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
aazme | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
waazme | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
oefne | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ferdiigne | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
huldge | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
einge |
These forms occur, be it mainly in poetry, and show the same problematic aspects as the ones in (4) and (6).
What one does not find, however, is deletion of the final schwa. The removal of the entire suffix would render the first and third person singular of the past tense and the past participle indistinguishable from the verb stem, which is an undesirable state of affairs.
If adjectives ending in /-ə{l/r}/ are inflected with the suffix /-ə/, the lapse may yield to the same pattern of schwa deletion as with the verbs in (9), as exemplified in (10):
Examples of the pattern of schwa deletion of inflected adjectives ending in -/ə{l/r}/ | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
wankele | /vaŋkəl+ə/ | [(vaŋ)(klə)] | staggered, reeled | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
mûtele | /mutəl+ə/ | [(mut)(tlə)] | chubby, plump | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
simpele | /sɪmpəl+ə/ | [(sɪm)(plə)] | simple | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
heldere | /hɛldər+ə/ | [(hɛl)(drə)] | clear; bright | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
dappere | /dapər+ə/ | [(dap)(prə)] | brave |
Suffixal schwa does not delete here either.
The same pattern can be observed with male names ending in -ele ( /-ələ/), examples of which are given in (11):
Examples of the pattern of schwa deletion in male names in /ələ/ | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Bartele | /batələ/ | [(bat)(tlə)] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Jakkele | /jakələ/ | [(jak)(klə)] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Seakele | /sɪəkələ/ | [(sɪə)(klə)] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Wiggele | /vɪɣələ/ | [(vɪɣ)(ɣlə)] |
Morphology is a counterforce to phonology here or, put differently, morphology and phonology impose conflicting demands: holding on to the full form because of the unity of the inflectional paradigm versus deletion of one of the schwas in order to arrive at a more preferred rhythmic configuration.
If schwa has a morphological function, this renders its deletion less likely or downright impossible. Take adjectival inflection. An adjective in attributive/prenominal use is inflected with schwa when preceding 1) a singular common noun, 2) a singular neuter noun, provided that it combines with a definite determiner, and 3) a plural noun (see adjectives). If the adjective is in the comparative − formed by adding the suffix -er /-ər/ − inflection results in a lapse, examples of which are given in (12):
Examples of inflected adjectives in the comparative in attributive use | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
de langere | /laŋ+ər+ə/ | jonge | the taller boy | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
langere | /laŋ+ər+ə/ | jonges | taller boys | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
it kreazere | /krɪəz+ər+ə/ | famke | the better-looking girl | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
kreazere | /krɪəz+ər+ə/ | famkes | better-looking girls |
With the possible exception of poetry, these forms are realized with two adjacent schwa syllables, so the 'interests' of morphology seems to outweigh those of phonology here.
Material adjectives, like houten /hɔwt+ən/ wooden (from hout wood), graniten /ɡranit+ən/ granite, made of granite (from granyt granite) and wollen /vol+ən/ woollen (from wol wool) can be inflected with -e (see Dyk (1996), Dykstra (1984)). Examples are provided in (13):
Examples of inflected material adjectives | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
de/in houtene stoel | the/a wooden chair | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
de/in granitene toanbank | the/a granite counter | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
de/in wollene tekken | the/a woollen blanket |
In this case, however, inflectional schwa may be left out (as is the rule in Dutch):
The examples of (13) with a non-realized inflectional schwa | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
de/in houten stoel | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
de/in graniten toanbank | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
de/in wollen tekken |
Here then morphology and phonology seem to be in balance.
Inflection may lead to configurations of three consecutive schwa syllables; see the examples in (15):
Examples of configuration with three consecutive schwa syllables | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
de ûnbetrouberdere | /unbetrɔwbər+d-ər+ə/ | direkteur | the more unreliable general manager | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
in foarsichtigere | /fwar#sɪxtəɣ+ər+ə/ | oanpak | a more cautious approach |
In this case, a realization without final schwa is preferred:
The examples of (15) with a non-realized inflectional schwa | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
de ûnbetrouberder direkteur | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
in foarsichtiger oanpak |
Here, phonology seems to outweigh morphology.
Matters may be complicated by still other factors. Take it kreaze /krɪəz+ə/famke the good-looking girl and de griene /ɡriən+ə/doar the green door, where both adjectives have an inflectional schwa, as required. But whereas it kreas famke sounds pretty acceptable, de grien doar the green door is out, though both contain an adjective with a non-realized final schwa. As to this, neuter nouns seem to behave differently from common nouns. Note that it is also with neuter singular nouns in combination with an indefinite determiner that a prenominal adjective is not allowed to be inflected with schwa, as in in kreas/*kreaze famke a good-looking girl.
- 1996From inflected material adjectives to the history of Schwa apocope in West Frisian: diverging influences on a sound changePetersen, Adeline & Nielsen, Hans Frede (eds.)A Frisian and Germanic Miscellany. Published in Honour of Nils Århammar on his sixty-fifth birthday, 7 August 1996OdenseOdense University Press, Odense55-67
- 1984'In wollen tekken' en 'de graniten toanbank': Oer de bûging fan stoflike adjektiven op -enArhammer, N.R., Breuker, Ph.H., Dam, F., Dykstra, A & Steenmeijer-Wielenga, T. (eds.)Miscellanea Frisica. In nije bondel Fryske stúdzjesAssenVan Gorcum183-191