- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- Introduction to Frisian
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans Consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological Processes
- Phonotactics
- Segment inventory
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Introduction to Noun Phrases
- Introduction to Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution
- Predication
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Introduction to Verb Phrases
- Phonology
Unlike stress retraction and iambic reversal, which are both leftward shifts of stress, trochaic reversal results in a rightward shift of stress in weak second constituents of compounds; it never affects the position of the primary compound stress.
Trochaic reversal regularly occurs in the following word groups (data from Visch 1989, Booij 1995):
Compounds with complex second constituents that have initial compound stress | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
bank | [ˈbɑŋk] | bank | + | overval | [ˈo.vər.ˌvɑl] | robbery | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
→ | bankoverval | [ˈbɑŋk.ˌo.vər.ˈvɑl] | bank robbery | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
kanker | [ˈkɑŋ.kər] | cancer | + | onderzoek | [ˈɔn.dər.ˌzuk] | research | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
→ | kankeronderzoek | [ˈkɑŋ.kər.ˌɔn.dər.ˈzuk] | cancer research | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
zang | [ˈzɑŋ] | sing | + | wedstrijd | [ˈʋɛt.strɛit] | competition | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
→ | zangwedstrijd | [ˈzɑŋ.ˌʋɛt.ˈstrɛit] | singing competition |
Compounds whose second constituents are trisyllabic prosodic words with initial primary stress | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
stad | /stɑd/ | [ˈstɑt] | city | + | almanak | [ˈɑl.ma.nɑk] | almanac | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
→ | stadsalmanak | [ˈstɑts.ˌɑl.ma.ˈnɑk] | city almanac | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
hoofd | /hofd/ | [ˈhoft] | main | + | regio | [ˈre.xi.o] | region | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
→ | hoofdregio | [ˈhovd.ˌre.xi.ˈo] | main region | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
strand | /strɑnd/ | [ˈstrɑnt] | beach | + | bungalow | [ˈbʏŋ.ga.lo] | bungalow | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
→ | strandbungalow | [ˈstrɑnd.ˌbʏŋ.ga.ˈlo] | beach bungalow |
Compounds whose second constituents are disyllabic and contain a final superheavy syllable that does not carry primary word stress | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
handen | [ˈhɑn.dən] | hand-PL | + | arbeid | [ˈɑr.bɛit] | work, labour | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
→ | handenarbeid | [ˈhɑn.dən.ɑr.ˈbɛit] | handcraft | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
bloed | /blud/ | [ˈblut] | blood | + | lichaam | [ˈlɪ.xam] | body | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
→ | bloedlichaam | [ˈblud.lɪ.ˈxam] | blood cell | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
voor | [ˈvor] | before | + | oordeel | [ˈor.del] | judgement | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
→ | vooroordeel | [ˈvor.or.ˈdel] | prejudice |
Trochaic reversal is largely excluded in compounds whose second constituent consists of disyllabic prosodic words with initial stress, in which the second syllable is not superheavy(4). There are a few exceptions, possibly lexicalized forms (5):
Disyllabic prosodic words with initial stress | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
bloed | /blud/ | [ˈblut] | blood | + | plasma | [ˈplɑs.ma] | plasma | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
→ | bloedplasma | [ˈblutˌplɑs.ma] | [*ˈblut.plɑs.ˌma] | bloed plasma | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
brief | [ˈbrif] | letter | + | porto | [ˈpɔr.to] | postage money | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
→ | briefporto | [ˈbrif.ˌpɔr.to] | [*ˈbrif.pɔr.ˌto] | letter postage | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
verkeer | [vɛr.ˈker] | traffic | + | chaos | [ˈxa.ɔs] | chaos | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
→ | verkeerschaos | [vɛr.ˈkers.ˌxa.ɔs] | [*vɛr.ˈkers.xa.ˌɔs] | traffic chaos | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
post | [ˈpɔst] | post | + | giro | [ˈxi.ro] | transfer | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
→ | postgiro | [ˈpɔst.ˌxi.ro] | [*ˈpɔst.xi.ˌro] | giro transfer |
a. | tand | /tɑnd/ | [ˈtɑnt] | tooth | + | pasta | [ˈpɑs.ta] | paste |
→ | tandpasta | [ˈtɑnt.pɑs.ˌta] | tooth paste |
b. | bos | [ˈbɔs] | forest | + | atlas | [ˈɑt.lɑs] | atlas |
→ | bosatlas | [ˈbɔs.ɑt.ˌlɑs] | atlas used at schools, Bos is the name of the author |
c. | aarts | [ˈarts] | arch | + | bisschop | [ˈbɪs.xɔp] | bishop |
→ | aartsbisschop | [ˈarts.bɪs.ˈxɔp] | archbishop |
Like iambic reversal, trochaic reversal is generally restricted to words with two stressed syllables, as only syllables with secondary stress in the isolated form are potential carriers of the shifted word stress. Accordingly, it does not occur when the second constituent is a disyllabic prosodic word, as such words have one stressed syllable only: adjacent stressed syllables are prohibited within one prosodic word. A configuration with two adjacent stressed syllables can usually only occur across morpheme boundaries, as e.g. in compounds.
Disyllabic words with unstressed super-heavy finals, which are subject to the stress shifts (see (3)), are an ambiguous category in this respect. Morphologically, they are simplex words as they show no overt morphological complexity, which suggests that the relevant stress patterns are exceptional. Phonologically, on the other hand, they behave like compounds, and they have been analyzed as so-called prosodic compounds in the literature, that is, as words that are morphologically simplex but consist of two prosodic words.
- Booij, Geert1995The phonology of DutchOxfordOxford University Press
- Visch, Ellis1989The rhythm rule in English and DutchUtrecht UniversityThesis
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Iambic reversal
[76%] Dutch > Phonology > Word stress > Stress in complex words > Stress shifts
- Patterns of secondary stress in words with full vowels only
[73%] Dutch > Phonology > Word stress > Secondary stress
- Stress retraction
[73%] Dutch > Phonology > Word stress > Stress in complex words > Stress shifts
- The phonological status of words with exceptional superheavy syllables
[71%] Dutch > Phonology > Word stress > Primary stress in simplex words > Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- Stress in complex words
[71%] Dutch > Phonology > Word stress
- Stress in complex words
[71%] Frisian > Phonology > Word stress
- The phonological status of words with exceptionalities in the behaviour of superheavy syllables
[70%] Frisian > Phonology > Word stress > Primary stress > Generalizations > Superheavy syllables
- Iambic reversal
[70%] Frisian > Phonology > Word stress > Stress in complex words > Stress shifts
- Alternating stress principle
[69%] Frisian > Phonology > Word stress > Secondary stress
- Stress in prefixed words
[69%] Frisian > Phonology > Word stress > Stress in complex words
- Stress pattern of reduplications
[67%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Word stress
- Stress in monomorphemes with final <a>
[66%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Word stress > The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
[66%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Word stress
- Exceptions
[65%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Word stress
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
[65%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Word stress
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Phrase-based compounds
[64%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Compounding
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
[64%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation
- Linking elements
[64%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Compounding
- Nominal compounds
[63%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Compounding
- Adjectival compounds
[63%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Compounding
- Interrogative pronouns
[64%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Pronouns
- In prenominal position
[63%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Adjectives
- ûn-
[62%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Prefixation > Adjectival prefixes > Adjective as base
- -heid, -ens and -ichheid
[62%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Nominal suffixes > Adjective as base
- Quantifiers
[61%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Numerals
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
[62%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Bound forms
[61%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Non-native affixes
[60%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Prefixation
[60%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Affixation
[59%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- 6.1.1.1. Simple and compound forms
[64%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 6 Numerals and quantifiers > 6.1. Numerals > 6.1.1. Cardinal numerals
- 1.3. Inflection
[62%] Dutch > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > 1 Characterization and classification
- 10.2. Verbal (X+V) collocations and verb-first/second
[62%] Dutch > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 1.1.1. Properties of adpositions
[62%] Dutch > Syntax > Adpositions and adpositional phrases > 1 Characteristics and classification > 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 7.2.4. Distribution of heel and its alternants as independent constituents
[61%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 7 Pre-determiners > 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- Referentiality versus quantification
[59%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Embedded Verb Second > Verb-second in embedded clauses > Linearity and referentiality
- Verbs and Verb Phrases in Frisian
[58%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases
- The complementiser dat 'that' as a marker of syntactic coordination
[58%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Embedded Verb Second > Verb-second in embedded clauses > UCV2s
- A morphological restriction on parasitic participles
[57%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Expression of irrealis > The verb sille 'shall' > Participio-pro-Infinitivo
- The third construction
[57%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > To-infinitival clauses > Verbal to-infinitives
- Constructions with APs
[62%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Adjective Phrases > Characteristics and classification
- Attribution
[61%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Adjective Phrases
- Mood
[61%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Characterization and classification
- Inflection and derivation
[60%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Characterization and classification
- Finite declarative complement clauses: construction forms
[60%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Complement clauses > Finite declarative complement clauses
