- Dutch1
- Frisian
- Saterfrisian
- Afrikaans
-
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
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- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Compositions
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
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- General
- Morphology
- Morphology
- 1 Word formation
- 1.1 Compounding
- 1.1.1 Compounds and their heads
- 1.1.2 Special types of compounds
- 1.1.2.1 Affixoids
- 1.1.2.2 Coordinative compounds
- 1.1.2.3 Synthetic compounds and complex pseudo-participles
- 1.1.2.4 Reduplicative compounds
- 1.1.2.5 Phrase-based compounds
- 1.1.2.6 Elative compounds
- 1.1.2.7 Exocentric compounds
- 1.1.2.8 Linking elements
- 1.1.2.9 Separable Complex Verbs and Particle Verbs
- 1.1.2.10 Noun Incorporation Verbs
- 1.1.2.11 Gapping
- 1.2 Derivation
- 1.3 Minor patterns of word formation
- 1.1 Compounding
- 2 Inflection
- 1 Word formation
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Adjectives and adjective phrases (APs)
- 0 Introduction to the AP
- 1 Characteristics and classification of APs
- 2 Complementation of APs
- 3 Modification and degree quantification of APs
- 4 Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative
- 5 Attribution of APs
- 6 Predication of APs
- 7 The partitive adjective construction
- 8 Adverbial use of APs
- 9 Participles and infinitives as APs
- Nouns and Noun Phrases (NPs)
- 0 Introduction to the NP
- 1 Characteristics and Classification of NPs
- 2 Complementation of NPs
- 3 Modification of NPs
- 3.1 Modification of NP by Determiners and APs
- 3.2 Modification of NP by PP
- 3.3 Modification of NP by adverbial clauses
- 3.4 Modification of NP by possessors
- 3.5 Modification of NP by relative clauses
- 3.6 Modification of NP in a cleft construction
- 3.7 Free relative clauses and selected interrogative clauses
- 4 Partitive noun constructions and constructions related to them
- 4.1 The referential partitive construction
- 4.2 The partitive construction of abstract quantity
- 4.3 The numerical partitive construction
- 4.4 The partitive interrogative construction
- 4.5 Adjectival, nominal and nominalised partitive quantifiers
- 4.6 Kind partitives
- 4.7 Partitive predication with a preposition
- 4.8 Bare nominal attribution
- 5 Articles and names
- 6 Pronouns
- 7 Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- 8 Interrogative pronouns
- 9 R-pronouns and the indefinite expletive
- 10 Syntactic functions of Noun Phrases
- Adpositions and Adpositional Phrases (PPs)
- 0 Introduction to the PP
- 1 Characteristics and classification of PPs
- 2 Complementation of PPs
- 3 Modification of PPs
- 4 Bare (intransitive) adpositions
- 5 Predication of PPs
- 6 Form and distribution of adpositions with respect to staticity and construction type
- 7 Adpositional complements and adverbials
- Verbs and Verb Phrases (VPs)
- 0 Introduction to the VP in Saterland Frisian
- 1 Characteristics and classification of verbs
- 2 Unergative and unaccusative subjects and the auxiliary of the perfect
- 3 Evidentiality in relation to perception and epistemicity
- 4 Types of to-infinitival constituents
- 5 Predication
- 5.1 The auxiliary of being and its selection restrictions
- 5.2 The auxiliary of going and its selection restrictions
- 5.3 The auxiliary of continuation and its selection restrictions
- 5.4 The auxiliary of coming and its selection restrictions
- 5.5 Modal auxiliaries and their selection restrictions
- 5.6 Auxiliaries of body posture and aspect and their selection restrictions
- 5.7 Transitive verbs of predication
- 5.8 The auxiliary of doing used as a semantically empty finite auxiliary
- 5.9 Supplementive predication
- 6 The verbal paradigm, irregularity and suppletion
- 7 Verb Second and the word order in main and embedded clauses
- 8 Various aspects of clause structure
- Adjectives and adjective phrases (APs)
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- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
Adverbially used spatial adpositional phrases are generally prepositional. Sometimes it is not easy to determine whether a spatial PP is used adverbially or not. Example (76), for instance, is ambiguous between a reading in which the PP is used as a complementive and a reading in which it is used as an adverbial phrase.
Jan springt | in de sloot. | ||
Jan jumps | in/into the ditch | ||
Complementive reading: 'Jan jumps into the ditch.' | |||
Adverbial reading: 'Jan is jumping in the ditch.' |
The two readings of (76) can be distinguished by putting the clause in the perfect tense, as in (77): if the PP acts as a complementive, the verb is unaccusative and the auxiliary zijn is used; if the PP is an adverbial phrase, the verb is intransitive and the auxiliary hebben is used. Taking the two examples in (77) as our point of departure, we can investigate the differences between the two uses of the PP.
a. | Jan is in de sloot | gesprongen. | |
Jan is into the ditch | jumped | ||
Complementive reading only: 'Jan jumped into the ditch.' |
b. | Jan heeft | in de sloot | gesprongen. | |
Jan has | in the ditch | jumped | ||
Adverbial reading only: 'Jan has jumped in the ditch.' |
The two uses of the spatial PPs do not seem to differ with respect to topicalization; both (78a) and (78b) are acceptable. The examples perhaps differ in that the complementive requires contrastive accent, while this is not necessary in the case of the adverbial phrase.
a. | In de sloot | is Jan gesprongen. | complementive | |
into the ditch | is | Jan jumped |
b. | In de sloot | heeft | Jan gesprongen. | adverbial | |
in the ditch | has | Jan jumped |
The examples in (79) show that a complementive PP must be left-adjacent to the verb(s) in clause-final position, whereas the adverbially used PP can occur in several positions in the middle field.
a. | dat | Jan vaak | in de sloot | sprong. | |
that | Jan often | in/into the ditch | jumped | ||
Complementive reading: 'that Jan often jumped into the ditch.' | |||||
Adverbial reading: 'that Jan often jumped in the ditch.' |
b. | dat | Jan in de sloot | vaak | sprong. | |
that | Jan in the ditch | often | jumped | ||
Adverbial reading only: 'that Jan often jumped in the ditch.' |
From the fact that the verb springen takes the auxiliary zijn if the PP is a complementive and the fact that complementives must be left-adjacent to the verbs in clause-final position, it correctly follows that (80a') is excluded: the auxiliary zijn forces a complementive reading, so that the PP must be left-adjacent to the clause-final verbs. Since adverbial PPs can occur in other positions in the middle field, (80b') is of course predicted to be possible.
a. | dat | Jan vaak | in de sloot | is gesprongen. | complementive | |
that | Jan often | into the ditch | is jumped |
a'. | * | dat Jan in de sloot vaak is gesprongen. |
b. | dat | Jan vaak | in de sloot | heeft | gesprongen. | adverbial | |
that | Jan often | in the ditch | has | jumped |
b'. | dat Jan in de sloot vaak heeft gesprongen. |
Note that we have avoided the use of the term scrambling in the discussion above. The reason for this is that scrambling is generally taken to be movement across the adverbs in the clause; it is not clear whether we are dealing with movement here or whether the adverbial phrases are simply base-generated in different positions. The latter possibility is supported by the fact that there can be more than one spatial adverbial phrase in a single clause. Observe that the adverbial phrases in (81) are strictly ordered: the more general one (in Amsterdam/de tuin) must precede the more specific one (bij Peter/onder de boom).
a. | dat | Jan in Amsterdam vaak | bij Peter | logeert. | |
that | Jan in Amsterdam often | with Peter | stays | ||
'that Jan often stays with Peter in Amsterdam.' |
a'. | * | dat | Jan bij Peter vaak in Amsterdam | logeert. |
b. | dat | Jan in de tuin | vaak | onder de boom | speelt. | |
that | Jan in the garden | often | under the tree | plays | ||
'that, in the garden, Jan often plays under the tree.' |
b'. | * | dat Jan onder de boom vaak in de tuin speelt |
Note that example (82a) does not refute the claim that the more general spatial phrase must precede the more specific one: example (82b) shows that these two PPs may be part of a larger constituent, in which the PP in de tuin functions as an attributive modifier of the noun boom: [PPonder [NP de boom [PP in de tuin]]].
a. | dat | Jan onder de boom | in de tuin | graag | speelt. | |
that | Jan under the tree | in the garden | gladly | plays | ||
'that Jan likes to play under the tree in the garden.' |
b. | Onder de boom in de tuin speelt Jan graag. |
PP-over-V can be also used to disambiguate the two constructions in (76): if PP-over-V does not apply, as in (83a), both readings are available; if PP-over-V does apply, as in (83b), only the adverbial reading survives.
a. | dat | Jan in de sloot | sprong. | |
that | Jan in/into the ditch | jumped | ||
Complementive reading: 'that Jan jumped into the ditch.' | ||||
Adverbial reading: 'that Jan was jumping in the ditch.' |
b. | dat | Jan sprong | in de sloot. | |
that | Jan jumped | in the ditch | ||
Adverbial reading only: 'that Jan was jumping in the ditch.' |
From the fact that the verb springen takes the auxiliary zijn if the PP is a complementive and the fact that complementives cannot be in extraposed position, it correctly follows that (84a') is excluded: the auxiliary zijn forces a complementive reading, so that the PP must precede the clause-final verbs. Since adverbial PPs can be in extraposed position (84b') is correctly predicted to be possible. This fact was noted earlier in (80), but the examples are repeated her for convenience.
a. | dat | Jan vaak | in de sloot | is gesprongen. | complementive |
a'. | * | dat Jan in de sloot vaak is gesprongen. |
b. | dat | Jan vaak | in de sloot | heeft | gesprongen. | adverbial |
b'. | dat Jan in de sloot vaak heeft gesprongen. |
If the clause contains more than one (spatial) PP, PP-over-V reverses the order these PPs have in the middle field of the clause; cf. Koster (1974). This becomes clear by comparing the examples in (85) with those in (81). Note that example (85b) also allows an analysis in which in de tuin'in the garden' is an attributive modifier of the noun boom'tree'. Note also that the primed examples in (85) become acceptable if the PPs in Amsterdam and onder de boom are presented as an afterthought, in which case they must be preceded by an intonation break.
a. | dat | Jan vaak | logeert | bij Peter | in Amsterdam. | |
that | Jan often | stays | with Peter | in Amsterdam | ||
'that Jan often stays with Peter in Amsterdam.' |
a'. | * | dat Jan vaak | logeert in Amsterdam bij Peter. |
b. | dat Jan vaak speelt onder de boom in de tuin. | |
that Jan often plays under the tree in the garden |
b'. | * | dat Jan vaak speelt in de tuin onder de boom. |
It seems that R-extraction is not readily possible with spatial adverbial phrases. Whereas extraction of a relative R-pronoun is perfectly acceptable from the complementive PP in (86a), it leads to a marked status when applied to the spatial adverbial PP in (86b); see Section 5.3 for more discussion.
a. | de sloot | waar | Jan in | is gesprongen | complementive | |
the ditch | where | Jan into | is jumped | |||
'the ditch into which Jan jumped' |
b. | ?? | de sloot | waar | Jan in heeft | gesprongen | adverbial |
the ditch | where | Jan in has | jumped | |||
'the ditch in which Jan jumped' |
There are, however, many unclear cases and speakers' judgments seem to differ considerably on R-extraction from spatial adverbial clauses, especially if we are dealing with relative clauses. Some speakers find examples such as (87a) quite acceptable, whereas others require pied piping of the preposition, as in (87b). Some speakers even object to both (87a) and (87b) and prefer the option of simply using the relative adverbial pro-form waar'where' in (87c).
a. | % | de tuin | waar | we een feest | in zullen | geven |
the garden | where | we a party | in will | give |
b. | de tuin | waarin | we een feest | zullen | geven | |
the garden | where.in | we a party | will | give | ||
'the garden in which we will give a party' |
c. | de tuin | waar | we een feest | zullen | geven | |
the garden | where | we a party | will | give | ||
'the garden where we will give a party' |
The previous subsections have shown that adverbially used PPs differ in various respects from complementive adpositional phrases. The differences have been summarized in Table 5. Recall from the discussion of (63) in Section 4.2.2 that spatial adpositional phrases can possibly also be used as supplementives. It seems, however, that the distinction between supplementive and adverbial adpositional phrases can only be made on the basis of their semantic relation to (the arguments of) the clause.
complementives | adverbial phrases | |
topicalization | + | + |
adjacency to clause-final verbs | obligatory | not necessary |
PP-over-V | — | + |
R-extraction | + | —/? |
- 1974Het werkwoord als spiegelcentrumSpektator3601-618