- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
Conversion (also called transposition, functional shift, zero derivation or zero affixation; also note the terms double duty(Dixon 2014) and naked word(Jespersen 1942)) is a directional process, linking an input and an output form that are formally but not semantically identical (Bauer, Lieber and Plag 2013:545; Booij 2002: 134-136; Don 1993). Many researchers see conversion as a special case of derivation, but without (visible) affixation or any phonological or orthographical changes; hence, the term zero affixation is often used as a synonym for conversion (e.g. Marchand 1969:359 ff; cf. also Smessaert 2013:Ch. 6).
A completely different position is taken in De Belder (2011). Working within the Exo-Skeletal variant of the Distributed Morphology framework (Halle 1993; Borer 2003), she maintains that lexical items have no syntactic category in the lexicon and only get one after being inserted into syntactic structure.
In Afrikaans, conversion is rather common and wide-spread, although seemingly less productive (or at least restricted differently) than in English and Dutch. Kempen (1969:31) argues that noun-to-verb (i.e. verbalisation) and adjective/adverb-to-adverb/adjective conversion are the most productive types of conversion in Afrikaans. However, Theron (1974) shows that verb-to-noun conversion (i.e. nominalisation) is actually the most common form of conversion in Afrikaans, directly in contrast to what has been argued for English (e.g. Biese 1941) and Dutch (e.g. Booij 2002). Theron (1974:177) concludes that roughly 60% of nouns and verbs are used equally as nouns and verbs inversely, while 20% are used primarily as nouns only, and 20% primarily only as verbs. For those 60% of cases, it is almost impossible to determine primary usage based on synchronic grounds.
Although words in almost any part-of-speech category can in theory be used in another category (e.g. in jest, as contortions, due to a lack of knowledge, etc.), the most common cases in Afrikaans are within the open word-classes. These, together with a few other common cases, include:
Input category | Output category | Output example |
Proper noun | Verb | google to google |
Proper noun | Interjection | Jeremia! Jeremiah! |
Verb | Noun | swem swimming |
Verb (Participle) | Adjective/Adverb | gebreek broken |
Noun | Verb | hamer to hammer (on something) |
Noun | Adjective/Adverb | suur sour |
Noun | Adjective/Adverb | blikners saddle-sore |
Noun | Interjection | bliksem! dammit! |
Numeral | Noun/Adjective | twee two |
Adjective/Adverb | Adverb/Adjective | maklik easy/easily |
Adjective | Noun | mondeling oral (exam) |
Adjective | Verb | gehoorsaam obey |
Preposition | Adverb | langs next to |
Preposition | Noun | buite < buite+kant (the) outside |
Numeral as adjective | Numeral as noun | twee two |
Interjection | Noun | eina wound |
Interjection | Adjective | eina scanty |
Interjection | Verb | poef to pooh |
Details of the different types of conversion are discussed in the following topics:
Original research on conversion in Afrikaans was mainly published in Kempen (1969), and in the PhD thesis of Theron (1974) that was conducted under Kempen's supervision. The remainder of this topic and its subtopics are based by and large on Theron's thesis.
Kempen (1969:31) argues that there is substantial overlap between Afrikaans and Dutch conversion, contrary to the claims of Hesseling (1923). However, (corpus-based) research should still be conducted to shed more light on the issue.
There is no lack of theories on morphological conversion (Bauer, Lieber and Plag 2013:563 ff). Some of the oldest theories used the concept of zero affixation, i.e. the postulation of an affix without phonological content that is responsible for the change in category and meaning. Marchand (1969:359 ff) gives an historical foundation for zero derivation: Following Jespersen, he suggests that the loss of endings gave rise to derivation by a zero morpheme. Synchronically, however, there are various problems with the approach: It is impossible to decide whether it is a zero prefix or a zero suffix, zeroes tend to proliferate (one for deverbal nouns of common gender, another one for neuter nouns, one for denominal verbs, one for de-adjectival verbs, etc.), and it is hard to imagine how language learners could ever learn to master the mechanisms.
- The direction of conversion is not always easy to decide. This is especially true for noun-verb pairs, adjectives-adverb pairs, and preposition-adverb pairs in Afrikaans.
- One way to determine the direction of conversion, is to consider it diachronically:
Which function did the word have first?
- The proper noun Google existed before the converted verb google. This is therefore a clear example of verbalising (or N-to-V) conversion.
- With regard to an N-V pair like wals waltz and (om te) wals (to) waltz, one can consider the etymology of the word. Wijk (1936 [1912]) shows that the High German noun walzer waltz was derived from the verb walzen to turn, roll, and we can therefore conclude that – diachronically speaking – the noun was converted from the verb.
- Another way to determine the direction of conversion, is to consider it
synchronically: Which function does the word have primarily?
- Primacy can be determined in various ways, including distribution, (perceived) frequency, prominence, definitional properties, etc.
- From a corpus investigation it is clear that the verb teks to text occurs much less frequent than its noun counterpart. Since this verbal function is a new development, one can safely assume that the noun was converted into a verb.
- In the case of a very old word like vinnig quick(ly); fast(ly) one should tread carefully, since vinnig is used more frequently as an adverb than as an adjective. Despite the fact that vinnig originated as an adjective, it is now used more frequently as an adverb. In such a case the adverbial use is primary, but the conversion was still from ADJ to ADV.
- One could ask users to define a word pair, and the function that is used in the definition of one of the words, could be considered the primary function. For example, one could ask users in a questionnaire to define the verb and noun dokter doctor. If most users define the verb as to act like a doctor, then the nominal function is primary.
- Similarly, one could consider definitions in dictionaries. For example, WAT defines the verb ploeg plough as to cultivate land with a plough, with a cross-reference to the noun ploeg plough. We can then deduct that the directionality of the conversion is from N to V.
- Oftentimes, dictionaries use primacy as an ordering principle for the sequence in which functions and polysemous meanings are presented. For example, WAT presents the nominal function under the lemma haak (to) hook first, followed by the verbal function, but vice versa under the lemma kap (to) cut. One could then deduce N-to-V conversion in then case of haak, and V-to-N conversion in the case of kap.
- Kempen (1969:37-38, 40) also illustrates that the number of polysemous meanings for the different functions of a word could serve as an indication of the primary function. For example, in WAT the noun baan lane; circuit; etc. has 19 polysemous meanings, while the verb has only two. From this we can deduce that the noun is primary, and hence that the verb was formed through N-to-V conversion.
For lengthy discussions of tests for directionality, see De Groot (1962:133-136) and Kempen (1969:Ch. 1).
The notion conversion might be extended to cases where there is no change in category, but in subcategory. For instance, it is often possible to use a causative verb formed by means of the causative affixes ver- or -iseer as an intransitive verb as well:
Another type of category-internal valency change is the formation of middle verbs on the basis of verbs that occur with an object or a prepositional adjunct that denotes an instrument, a location, or an external circumstance:
As argued in Booij (1992) and Ackema and Schoorlemmer (1994;1995), this intransitive use of verbs cannot be a matter of syntax, but requires a lexical rule that applies to the lexical conceptual structure of verbs that express an action: the resulting middle verbs do not express an action, but a property. These middle verbs usually require some evaluative expression to be present in the clause in which they occur that specifies how well the subject can be involved in the event.
The three tables below have been reproduced from Theron's (1974) thesis.
Words functioning primarily as verbs, and secondarily as nouns:
aai | aanbou | aandring | aanhoor | aanhou |
aankom | aankweek | aanmaak | aanneem | aanpak |
aanplant | aanraai | aansit | aanskou | aanslaan |
aanvoer | aanwys | aarsel | afdruip | afdrup |
afhang | afhou | afkantel | afkom | afoes |
afreis | afry | afsit | afskrik | afsterwe |
afstryk | afvloei | afvoer | afweer | ag (‘respekteer’) |
agterbly | agteroorgooi | asemhaal | baasraak | baat |
bagger | baljaar | ban | bangmaak | bedaar |
bederf | beding | behoort | bekyk | bereik |
besit | bestel | bestier | betoog | betoon |
beur | bevind | bladlees | bleik | blindtik |
bloei | blus | boekstaaf | boemel | boet |
boks | borduur | bot | bots | bou |
braak | brabbel | brandverf | bras | brou |
byboek | byteken | deurdruk | deurkyk | deursny |
deurstoot | deurtrek | deurvlug | deurvoer | dig (‘skryf’) |
dink | dobber | doem | doen | doesel |
dog | dommel | doodgaan | doodsê | doodverf |
dooi | dos | draf | dril | drink |
druk | dut | dwaal | dwarrel | eet |
faal | feil | fietsry | flous | fluister |
gaan | galm | galop | gebeur | gekskeer |
gelukwens | gelykstaan | gis | glim | glinster |
glip | gluur | gly | gooi | grim |
groei | grou (‘grawe’) | gryp | hardloop | heengaan |
heers | heg | hekel | help | herstel |
hoor | hou | huil | insien | intrap |
intree | intrek | jubel | kaap | kant |
kap | karwei | keur | klim | klink |
kluister | knel | knikker | knipper | koop |
kophou | korswel | lê | leeglê | leen |
leer (‘studeer’) | lees (i.v.m. boeke) | lekkerkry | liplees | loer |
moker | mooipraat | naloop | namaak | neerhaal |
omkoop | omruil | onderhuur | onderspit | oordek |
oorhaal | oorsteek (‘verder gaan’) | ophaal | oploop | oppas |
opsien | opskep | opsmuk | opstaan | paalspring |
pamperlang | pleit | praat | pronk | prut |
raas | ratel | rondreis | rou | ruik |
ry | ryloop | saamwerk | sak (‘afbeweeg’) | sanik |
sê | seur | sier | sing | sink |
sit | skerts | skiet | skif | skik |
skommel | skoolhou | skoor | skors | skraag |
skrap | slag (bv. van diere) | slenter | sleur | sloof |
sluimer | smaad | smokkel | smul | spat |
spot | spring | sprinkel | staan | staar |
steel | steur | stry | stryk | suip |
sukkel | swier | tas | teel | teem |
tooi | toon | trop | uitgaan | uithaal |
uitkoop | uitkyk | uitstap | uitstryk | uitvra |
uitwas | vat | vee | verbygaan | verdedig |
vergiet | verhuis | verkoop | verskiet | verwyl |
vleg | vra | walg | wan | wandel |
wantrou | was | weergalm | wei | woeker |
wraak | wyk | yl |
Words functioning primarily as nouns, and secondarily as verbs:
aanskyn | akker | akkoord | amateur | ambag |
angs | baard | balein | ballas | bandiet |
barbier | batik | bed | bek | belang |
beraad | besem | beswaar | beul | blaar |
bloed | blousel | bobbejaan | boeg | boepens |
bolwerk | bom | boodskap | boog | boom |
bos | bout | broek | bruilof | buffer |
buik | bullebak | bus | byval | Craven |
dagga | dak | das | dassie | dief |
dons | doring | draad | duiwel | eelt |
eiland | fabel | fabriek | fiets | foelie |
front | galg | gas | gasie | gebaar |
gerief | gevoel | gier | glas | glorie |
gordel | goud | graan | grasduin | grein |
grens | griffel | groep | hoer | hotnot |
huis | jeremiade | jood | kampioen | kanon |
kantoor | kap (‘hoofbedekking’) | kapater | kapoen | kastrol |
katel | keel | keper | kerk | kerker |
ketting | kiek | kiel | kiem | kierie |
klavier | klawer | kleed | klei | klier |
klomp | kluis | kneg | knip | knuppel |
koeël | koei | koekepan | koelie | koepel |
koerant | koffie | kok | kol | kondukteur |
konfyt | konsertina | konsistorie | kontoer | koring |
kos | kraal | kram | krans | kruiwa |
kruk | kryg | kuil | kuip | kwaal |
laer | lamp | lans | leer | lem |
leraar | letter | likkewaan | luik | luilak |
lumier | lummel | maal | mag | mangel |
masker | meer (‘see’) | middag | mishoop | modder |
mot | motor | myl | myn | naald |
naam | nadruk | neger | nek | nes |
neus | nut | onderwys | operasie | orakel |
orkes | orrel | paap | pakkaas | paljas |
pand | pantoffel | papegaai | parmant | peer |
pel | pen | penseel | peperment | petrol |
pit | plaag | plak | pluim | pluimpie |
polka | poot | pot | pram | pyp |
raaisel | ram | rantsoen | rede | rentenier |
res | ridder | ring | roof | rusie |
rysmier | saal | sabel | saksofoon | sambok |
seksie | senter | sirkus | skandmerk | skandvlek |
skêr | skobbejak | skottel | skouer | slaaf |
slaai | slang | slee | sloot | sluier |
smart | snip | snit | snoeker | sop |
spier | spies | spioen | spys | staat |
stofreën | storie | stortreën | straat | string |
stronk | stronk | stroois | strop | stukadoor |
sukkel | sussie | sweem | sweep | syfer (‘getal’) |
tafel | tafsy | tand | tapyt | tee |
teiken | titel | toeval | tokkelok | tonnel |
toorn | trebbel | trem | trompet | tuinier |
tweeling | vakansie | verdriet | veter | vier |
vilt | vis | vleg | vlei | vloer |
vlooi | voering | voor (‘sloot’) | vraag | vuis |
waaier | waan | werwel | wiel | wingerd |
winkel | wolk | wraak | wrok |
Words functioning equally as verbs and nouns:
aanbelang | aanblik | aangee | aangroei | aanhef |
aankoop | aanloop | aanroep | aansien | aanstoot |
aanteel | aanval | aanvang | aanwas | aar |
aard | aas | abba | ablou | adel |
adem | afdruk | afgaan | afjak | aflaat |
aflos | afset | afskop | afslaan | afstel |
aftrek | afval | agterklap | agterlap | amok |
angel | anker | antwoord | argwaan | asem |
asgaai | B.T.K. | baai | baal | baan |
bad | bak | baken | baklei | bal |
ballet | balsem | bank | banvloek | bars |
bas | baster | basuin | bedryf | beeld |
begin | behae | beheer | beitel | beits |
bel | beleg | belet | beloop | berig |
beroep | berou | besef | besluit | besoek |
bestaan | bestuur | bewys | bieg | biljart |
binneloods | binnetrap | binneval | blaas | blaf |
blaker | blêr | blik | bliksem | blinddoek |
blits | blok | blom | blyk | bobbel |
boei | boek | boekhou | boer | bof |
boggel | boikot | bok | bol | bolster |
bondel | bons | boor | borg | borrel |
borsel | bottel | botter | brand | brandmerk |
brandskilder | breidel | brekfis | briek | bril |
brom | brons | brug | brul | bry |
buit | bulk | bult | bundel | bysit |
byslaap | byt | chaperone | dam | damp |
dank | dans | deel | dek | deug |
deurlaat | deurloop | deurreis | dip | doel |
doepa | dok | dokter | donder | donker |
dood | doodskop | doodsteek | doodsweet | doodvat |
doop | dop | dou | draai | dreun |
drom | droom | drup | druppel | dubbelvou |
duik | duur | dwarsboom | dy | eb |
eer | eg | eggo | eis | end |
ent | erd | erf | ets | etter |
ewenaar | fees | film | finansier | flap |
flenter | flerrie | fliek | flikker | flikkervlam |
flirt | flits | fluit | fokus | fonkel |
foon | frommel | frons | fuif | fynkam |
gaap | gaffel | gebruik | geld | geloof |
geluk | gesel | gespe | geur | geval |
ghries | ghrop | gil | glans | glasuur |
glimlag | gluuroog | golf | gom | gorrel |
graaf | grap | grendel | grief | gril |
grimlag | groef | groet | grom | grond |
grondverf | gruis | gryns | grynslag | gulp |
haak | haal | haar | haas | haat |
hael | hak | hamer | handel | hang |
hap | hark | harnas | harpoen | harpuis |
hef | heks | hendikep | her | herberg |
herdruk | hewel | hobbel | hoepel | hoes |
hok | hooi | hoon | hoop (‘bondel’) | hoop (‘verwag’) |
houvas | huur | indruk | inkoop | inlas |
inry | inval | invoer | jag | jeuk |
kaart | kabbel | kabel | kalf | kam |
kamp | kanker | kapittel | kapok | karring |
kartel | kas | katrol | kats | keep |
keer | kef | kelder | kelk | kenmerk |
kenskets | kerf | ketter | kim | kinkel |
kis | klad | klamp | klank | klap |
klas | klem | klets | kleur | kliek |
klik | klits | kloek | klok | klont |
kloof | klop | klou | kluif | knak |
kneus | kniehalter | knik | knip | knoop |
knop | knop | knor | knor | knou |
knyp | koek | koers | kolf | kolk |
kontak | kop | koppel | korrel | kors |
koukus | kraai | kraak | krap | kriek |
kring | krinkel | kronkel | kroon | krop |
kruie | kruis | krul | krummel | kug |
kuier | kurk | kus | kwesel | kwyl |
kyk | laagvat | lag | lak | land |
lanterfanter | lap | las | laster | laventel |
lawaai | lek (‘lekplek’) | lek (‘leksel’) | lepel | lewe |
loer | loods | loog | loon | loop |
lug | lui | lym | lyn | lys |
manikuur | mars | melk | merk | mik |
mis | misbruik | mond | monster | mud |
muilband | munt | nael | nerf | nommer |
noodsaak | oes | offer | olie | omhaal |
omkoop | omloop | omswaai | omvang | onderrig |
ondersoek | ontbyt | onthaal | ontstaan | ontwerp |
oordruk | oorloop | oorstaan | oorval | opbou |
ophef | oproep | opstel | paar | pag |
pak | pantser | pas | peil | pêrel |
pes | peul | piekniek | piep | pik |
pil | plaas | plant | plas | plasreën |
pleister | plesier | ploeg | plof | plons |
plooi | poeier | politoer | pols | pomp |
pond | pons | pootjie | pos | praal |
preek | priem | prikkel | proef | prop |
prys | pulwer | punt | put | pyl |
pyn | raam | rafel | rand | rank |
ransel | raps | rasper | redetwis | reël |
reën | reis | rek | rem | rep |
riffel | rimpel | roem | roep | roer |
roes | roesemoes | roffel | rofkas | roggel |
rol | rook | room | rooster | roskam |
ruil | ruk | rumoer | rus | rym |
ryp | rys | saag | saamtrek | salf |
salpeter | saluut | seel | seën | seep |
seil | sein | sens | sensor | set |
setel | sif | sirkel | skaaf | skaak |
skaar | skaats | skakel | skarnier | skat |
skaterlag | skemer | skep | skerm | skets |
skeur | ski | skil | skilder | skilfer |
skimp | skipper | skoffel | skok | skollie |
skool | skoonmaak | skoonvang | skop | skou |
skree | skreeu | skroef | skroom | skrum |
skrywe | skuif | skuim | skuld | skulp |
skut | skyn | slaap | slampamper | slinger |
slof | sloop | sluk | slurp | smaak |
smeer | smous | snaar | snater | sneeu |
snik | snipper | snoer | snuit | sny |
soen | sool | soom | sorg | sous |
spaander | spalk | span | speen | speld |
spieël | spikkel | spit | spits | splinter |
spoed | spoeg | spoel | spons | spook |
spoor | sprei | sproei | spruit | spuit |
spyker | staal | stal | stam | stamp |
stap | stapel | steek | steier | stel |
stem | stempel | steun | stippel | stoel |
stof | stoof | stoom | stoot | stop |
storm | stort | straal | strand | streep |
striem | strik | stroom | stut | stuur |
stysel | sug | suiker | swaai | swael |
sweer | sweet | swenk | swerm | takel |
tamboer | teël | teenstem | teer | teken |
tender | tennis | terugval | tik | tingel |
tint | tip | tjap | toeloop | toer |
toeter | toets | toevoer | tol | tolk |
top | toring | traan | trap | tree |
trek | troef | trok | trommel | trompetter |
troon | troos | tros | tug | tuit |
twis | twyfel | uitbraak | uitlaat | uitloop |
uitroep | uitstel | uitval | uitverkoop | uitvoer |
val | vastrap | veer | verbruik | verderf |
verf | vergelyk | vergryp | verhaal | verhoog |
verkeer | verloop | vermaak | vernis | verset |
verskil | versoek | versuim | vertoon | vertrek |
verval | vervoer | vervolg | verweer | verwyt |
veto | vlam | vlek | vlieg | vloek |
vlym | voeg | voer | vonk | vonnis |
voorgee | voorloop | voorstel | voorval | vorm |
vou | vrees | vul | vurk | vuur |
vyl | waarborg | waarmerk | wag | walm |
wals | wanhoop | wapen | wasem | water |
weerlig | wenk | wens | werk | wieg |
wil | wip | wissel | wond | wonder |
wortel | ys | ysskaats | ywer |
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