- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- Introduction to Frisian
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans Vowels
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans Consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans Vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological Processes
- Phonotactics
- Segment inventory
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1. Characterization and classification
- 2. Binominal Constructions
- 3. Modification
- The modification of a Head Noun in a Noun Phrase (Overview)
- The modification of the head N of a NP: (In)definite Pronouns
- The modification of head Nouns: Numerals
- The modification of Names
- The modification of substantive nouns: Articles
- The modification of substantive nouns: Demonstratives
- The modification of substantive nouns: Determiners
- Modification of substantive nouns: Genitive forms
- The modification of substantive nouns: Quantifiers
- The modification of substantive nouns: Questions and the relative pronoun welke 'which'
- 5. Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and Degree Quantification
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1. Characterization and classification
- 3. Alternations
- 5. Complement Clauses
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- Phonology
In morphology, productivity is the phenomenon that a morphological pattern (a systematic form-meaning correspondence) observed a set of complex words can be extended to new cases. This then leads to new complex words, or inflectional forms of words. Examples of productive word formation in Dutch are the formation of new adjectives in –baar from verbs, such as skypebaarcan be skyped derived from the verb skypento skype, and the formation of new NN compounds such as rolkoffertoerismeroller case tourism. In inflection, the formation of past tense forms of verbs by means of suffixation is productive, as in skypteskyped.
On the other hand, there are quite a number of morphological patterns that are unproductive. For instance, Dutch has hundreds of verbs ending in –elen, such as babbelento chat and wiebelento wobble, but this class of verbs can hardly be extended. An example of an unproductive pattern in inflection is the set of past tense forms of verbs created by means of vowel change (Ablaut).
Productive patterns differ in their degree of productivity. Some are very productive, such as NN compounding, whereas other patterns are only marginally productive. For instance, the category of denominal female names ending in –in such as leeuwinlioness can hardly be extended. In an experimental situation speakers may come up with nouns like giraffinfemale giraffe or vrekkinfemale miser, but such words then have a flavour of affectation or artificiality.
The nature of morphological productivity has been a topic of debate in Dutch morphology circles since Schultink’s famous article on this topic ((Schultink 1961)), and his dissertation(Schultink 1962). Schultink reserved the notion of morphological productivity for cases of unintentionally coined new words, and considered other types of formation of new words a case of creativity. His famous definition, often cited in the international literature on morphology reads as follows: 'Productivity as a morphological phenomenon is the possibility for language users to coin, unintentionally, an in principle uncountable number of new words by means of the morphological process that underlies the form-meaning correspondence in some words they know' ("Onder produktiviteit als morfologisch fenomeen verstaan we dan de voor taalgebruikers bestaande mogelijkheid onopzettelijk door middel van het morfologisch procedé dat aan de vorm-betekenis-correspondentie van sommige hun bekende woorden ten grondslag ligt een in principe niet telbaar aantal nieuwe formaties toe te voegen" (Schultink 1962: 113). This distinction between productivity and creativity is also defended in (Van Marle 1985). However, other linguists have pointed out that it is not easy to make a principled distinction between unintentional and intentional language use (Bauer 2001).
The actual use of in principle productive processes differs enormously. Various factors play a role, such as the semantic usefulness of the morphological category, the number of available base words, style and text type, the competition with existing words that already have that meaning, and the competition of other morphological categories with similar meanings. This may be phrased as follows: not all possible complex words (as defined by the set of morphological schemata) are also probable complex words (Van Santen 1992).
Another complication is that a word formation process may only be productive for certain subcategories. For instance, the formation of denominal nouns in –er such as wetenschapperscientist and Amsterdammerinhabitant of Amsterdam is not productive across the board: it is productive for coining inhabitant names, but a noun like godsdienst-erreligion-erreligious person is odd.
The way in which the degree of productivity of a morphological pattern can be determined is a matter of debate. It is not sufficient to only count the number of word types of a category, and assume that a high number of word types indicates a high degree of productivity, because unproductive categories may also be instantiated by a high number of word types. Therefore, (Baayen 1989) proposed to measure the productivity of word formation processes by counting the number of hapaxes (word types with frequency 1) in a large corpus. This way of measuring productivity is based on the idea that a productive process will lead to a lot of hapaxes, whereas processes with a low degree of productivity will not result in a lot of such low frequency word types.
The issue of productivity, with examples from Dutch, is discussed in detail in (Booij 2017: chapter 6) (cf. also (Barðdal 2008: Ch. 2). Baayen has published a number of studies on measuring productivity of Dutch word formation processes (Baayen 1989), (Baayen 1993), (Baayen 1994). Clear cases of unproductive word formation in Dutch with many types are verbs in –eren and –elen such as bibberento shiver and babbelento chatter. They are dealt with in (Booij and Audring 2018) who argue that the morphological schemas that characterize these sets of verbs have the function of motivation: they express that the meaning of such verbs is not completely arbitrary.
- Baayen, R. Harald1989A corpus-based approach to morphological productivity: statistical analysis and psycholinguistic interpretationVrije Universiteit AmsterdamThesis
- Baayen, R. Harald1989A corpus-based approach to morphological productivity: statistical analysis and psycholinguistic interpretationVrije Universiteit AmsterdamThesis
- Baayen, R. Harald1993On frequency, transparency, and productivityBooij, Geert & Jaap van Marle (ed.)Yearbook of Morphology 1992Kluwer181-208
- Baayen, R. Harald1994Derivational productivity and text typologyJournal of Quantative Linguistics116-34
- Barðdal, Jóhanna2008Evidence from Case and Argument Structure in IcelandicJohn Benjamins
- Bauer, Laurie2001Morphological productivityCambridgeCambridge University Press
- Booij, Geert and Ariane van Santen2017Morfologie. De woordstructuur van het Nederlands.AmsterdamAmsterdam University Press
- Booij, Geert and Jenny Audring2018Partial motivation, multiple motivation, and the role of output schemasBooij, Geert (ed.)The construction of words. Advances in Construction MorphologyDordrechtSpringer
- Marle, Jaap van1985On the paradigmatic dimension of morphological creativityDordrechtForis
- Santen, Ariane van1992Produktiviteit in taal en taalgebruikLeidenUniversity of Leiden
- Schultink, Henk1961Produktiviteit als morfologisch fenomeenForum der Letteren2100-125
- Schultink, Henk1962De morfologische valentie van het ongelede adjectief in modern NederlandsDen HaagVan Goor Zonen
- Schultink, Henk1962De morfologische valentie van het ongelede adjectief in modern NederlandsDen HaagVan Goor Zonen
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Stem allomorphy
[79%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonology-morphology interface > Allomorphy
- Relation between prosody and morphology
[77%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonology-morphology interface
- Acoustic correlates of stress
[75%] Dutch > Phonology > Accent & intonation
- Abstract phonological forms in Dutch orthography
[75%] Dutch > Phonology > Spelling
- Phonotactics
[75%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonotactics
- Word-final short vowels
[79%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonotactics > Codas > Word-final vowels
- /r/-deletion
[77%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes
- Orthography
[77%] Frisian > Phonology > Orthography of Frisian
- /r/-deletion in simplex words
[76%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes > /r/-deletion
- Cliticization
[76%] Frisian > Phonology > Clitics
- r-deletion
[80%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes
- Nasalization
[80%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Vowel related processes
- Rhotacism
[80%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes
- Vowel derounding
[79%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Vowel related processes
- Phonological processes
[78%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Word formation
[84%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation
- Conversion
[80%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
[80%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation
- Derivation
[80%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation
- Nominal suffixation: diminutives
[80%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Nouns > Nominal suffixes
- -mannich
[78%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Nominal suffixes > Noun as base
- Word formation
[78%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation
- Weak verbs
[76%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Verbs
- -DIM (diminutive)
[76%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Nominal suffixes > Noun as base
- Conversion
[76%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation
- Derivation
[81%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word-formation
- Inputs and input restrictions
[79%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word-formation > Derivation
- Non-native affixes
[76%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word-formation > Derivation
- Prefixation
[74%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word-formation > Derivation
- Meaning of affixes
[72%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word-formation > Derivation
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Preface and acknowledgments
[82%] Dutch > Syntax > Preface and acknowledgements
- Introduction
[79%] Dutch > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1.3.1.3. Ing-nominalization
[79%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 1 Characterization and classification > 1.3. Derivation of nouns > 1.3.1. Deverbal nouns
- Introduction
[78%] Dutch > Syntax > Adjectives and Adjective Phrases > 1 Characteristics and classification
- 1.3.1.1. General properties of nominalization
[78%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 1 Characterization and classification > 1.3. Derivation of nouns > 1.3.1. Deverbal nouns
- Selecting a bare infinitive
[78%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Predication and noun incorporation > Bliuwe 'stay'
- Selecting a bare infinitive
[76%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Predication and noun incorporation > Komme 'come'
- Verbs and Verb Phrases in Frisian
[75%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases
- The adverb of manner & degree sa 'so' and negation
[72%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Negation
- Combining with to-infinitives
[72%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Predication and noun incorporation > Copulas
- Binominal phrases: Classificatory constructions
[78%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 2. Binominal Constructions
- General properties of nominalization
[78%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 1. Characterization and classification > 1.3 Derivation of nouns > 1.3.1. Deverbal nouns
- Binominal constructions: (Proper) Name constructions
[77%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 2. Binominal Constructions
- Finite declarative complement clauses: Lexical and semantic associations
[77%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > 5. Complement Clauses > 5.1. Finite declarative complement clauses
- Finite declarative complement clauses: Construction forms
[76%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > 5. Complement Clauses > 5.1. Finite declarative complement clauses
