- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- Introduction to Frisian
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans Vowels
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans Consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans Vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological Processes
- Phonotactics
- Segment inventory
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1. Characterization and classification
- 2. Binominal Constructions
- 3. Modification
- The modification of a Head Noun in a Noun Phrase (Overview)
- The modification of the head N of a NP: (In)definite Pronouns
- The modification of head Nouns: Numerals
- The modification of Names
- The modification of substantive nouns: Articles
- The modification of substantive nouns: Demonstratives
- The modification of substantive nouns: Determiners
- Modification of substantive nouns: Genitive forms
- The modification of substantive nouns: Quantifiers
- The modification of substantive nouns: Questions and the relative pronoun welke 'which'
- 5. Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and Degree Quantification
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1. Characterization and classification
- 3. Alternations
- 5. Complement Clauses
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- Phonology
The affix -air/ε:r/ is a non-native, stress-bearing, cohering suffix found in adjectives and personal nouns based on non-native nouns and roots. Adjectival -air formations such as atomairatomic have a relational meaning (having to do with the base noun), and a comparable relational semantics (someone having to do with the base noun) is found in nominal -air formations such as diamantairdiamond seller and stagiairintern. A small number of words in -air does not denote persons but objects things e.g. sanitairsanitary facilities. The suffix is not productive, most Dutch words containing -air may be loans.
The suffix -air originates from French. It is stress-bearing, and cohering, as syllabification does not respect morphological structure.
Just like -aar (as in molenaarmiller < molenmill), -air can ultimately be traced back to the Latin suffix -arius. That is, has been loaned twice, but in different times and via different pathways.
Adjectives in -air have a relational meaning (cf. (Booij 2002: 108ff)), i.e., their meaning can often be described as having something to do with the meaning of the base. There is a division of labor with (equally nonproductive -oir) ((De Haas and Trommelen 1993: 336ff)).
(De Haas and Trommelen 1993: 213) distinguish three types of nouns in -air:
- personal nouns, based on non-native nouns and roots such as diamantairdiamond seller (< diamantdiamond), miljonairmillionaire (< miljoenmillion), antiquairantiquarian (antiekantique(s)), stagiairintern (stageinternship). These forms are of common gender, taking the indefinite singular article de, and have a plural form in -s. Some can have a feminine counterpart in -e, e.g. diamantairefemale diamond seller, stagiairefemale intern.
- personal nouns, based on non-native nouns and roots such as visionairvisionary (< visioenvision) and militairsoldier, militairy (possibly from a root *milit, cf. below). They are of common gender, taking the indefinite singular article de. Some of these have a plural form in -s, e.g. veterinairsvets, others in -en, e.g. militairensoldiers. There is no morphologically marked feminine counterpart.
[hide extra information]x
(De Haas and Trommelen 1993: 213) suggest that the nouns of this second class may be cases of conversion of the homophonous adjectives. A radically different perspective is taken by (De Belder 2011): working within the framework of Distributed Morphology, De Belder opines that these formations have no syntactic category in the lexicon and only get one in the syntactic process of sentence formation.
- two nouns in -air denote collections of things, viz., sanitairsanitary facilities, plumbing and meubilairfurniture. These nouns are of neuter gender, taking the singular indefinite article het, and do not have a plural form.
[hide extra information]x
According to (De Haas and Trommelen 1993: 213), these nouns can also occur as adjectives, but for many native speakers this does not hold for meubilair.
Morphological potential: words in -air can be input to noun formation in -iteit (polariteitpolarity < polairpolar) or -isme (militarismemilitarism < militairmilitary), or verb formation in -iseer (populariserenpopularize < populairpopular). Note that the vowel ai/ε:/ changes into a/ɑ:/, an instance of learned vowel backing (Dell and Selkirk 1978, Booij 1995: 77, cf. suffix allomorphy).
Many cases of -air formation show phonological or orthographical changes in the base word, e.g. prevocalic deletion of schwa in stagiarintern (< stage) and disciplinairdisciplinary (< disciplinediscipline) or vowel change in circulaircircular (< cirkelcircle).
Many formations in -air are based on roots that do not occur as independent words. In cases such as militairmilitary one might think of affix substitution, as there are other forms based on the same root, e.g. militia. Probably, most Dutch -air formations are loans. The fact that /ε:/, the vowel in the suffix, does not occur in native words is additional evidence for this hypothesis.
Occasionally one meets new formations in -air, e.g. adjectival interbellair (< interbelluminterwar) (Belgian journal De Standaard October 16th, 2010, as cited in Taalkalender Onze Taal, December 15th, 2014).
- Belder, Marijke de2011Roots and Affixes: Eliminating lexical categories from syntaxUtrechtThesis
- Booij, Geert1995The phonology of DutchOxfordOxford University Press
- Booij, Geert2002The morphology of DutchOxfordOxford University Press
- Dell, François & Selkirk, Elisabeth1978On a morphologically governed vowel alternation in FrenchRecent transformational studies in European languagesCambridge Mass.MITPress1-52
- Haas, Wim de & Trommelen, Mieke1993Morfologisch handboek van het Nederlands. Een overzicht van de woordvormingSDU Uitgeverij
- Haas, Wim de & Trommelen, Mieke1993Morfologisch handboek van het Nederlands. Een overzicht van de woordvormingSDU Uitgeverij
- Haas, Wim de & Trommelen, Mieke1993Morfologisch handboek van het Nederlands. Een overzicht van de woordvormingSDU Uitgeverij
- Haas, Wim de & Trommelen, Mieke1993Morfologisch handboek van het Nederlands. Een overzicht van de woordvormingSDU Uitgeverij
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Phonological processes in casual speech
[73%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonological processes
- The unrounded high-mid front-central vowel /ɪ/
[72%] Dutch > Phonology > Segment inventory > Vowel inventory
- Relation between prosody and morphology
[70%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonology-morphology interface
- The spelling of vowels
[69%] Dutch > Phonology > Spelling
- Schwa epenthesis and schwa deletion
[69%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonological processes
- /{s/z}/-insertion between /{t/d}/ and /jə/
[74%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes
- Word-final short vowels
[73%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonotactics > Codas > Word-final vowels
- /d/-insertion in the sequences /nər/, /lər/, and /rər/
[72%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes
- Complex segments as single units
[72%] Frisian > Phonology > Segment inventory > Sequences involving s & plosives
- Schwa deletion as a synchronic process: how to deal with lapses
[72%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Schwa deletion
- The rounded and unrounded close front vowels of Afrikaans
[74%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Segment inventory > Overview of Afrikaans Vowels
- Vowel derounding
[74%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Vowel related processes
- Nasal assimilation
[73%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes
- Rhotacism
[73%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes
- d-deletion
[73%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes > Consonant cluster simplification: Overview
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- -aal and -eel
[82%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Nouns > Nominal suffixes
- -ist
[79%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Nouns > Nominal suffixes
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[78%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Nouns > Nominal suffixes
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[77%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Nouns > Nominal suffixes
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[77%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Nouns > Nominal suffixes
- Cardinal numbers
[74%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Numerals
- In prenominal position
[73%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Adjectives
- -DIM (diminutive)
[73%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Nominal suffixes > Noun as base
- -heid, -ens and -ichheid
[73%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Nominal suffixes > Adjective as base
- -ing
[73%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Nominal suffixes > Verb as base
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[72%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word-formation > Derivation
- Meaning of affixes
[69%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word-formation > Derivation
- Inputs and input restrictions
[68%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word-formation > Derivation
- Derivation
[68%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word-formation
- -ies (ADJZ)
[68%] Afrikaans > Morphology > List of affixes
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- 7.2.4. Distribution of heel and its alternants as independent constituents
[73%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 7 Pre-determiners > 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 1.3.2. Deadjectival nouns
[73%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 1 Characterization and classification > 1.3. Derivation of nouns
- 1.1.1. Properties of adpositions
[72%] Dutch > Syntax > Adpositions and adpositional phrases > 1 Characteristics and classification > 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.3. Inflection
[72%] Dutch > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > 1 Characterization and classification
- 1.2.2.1. Concrete nouns
[72%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 1 Characterization and classification > 1.2. Classification > 1.2.1. Proper nouns
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[66%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases
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[66%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Expression of irrealis
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[65%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Embedded Verb Second > Verb-second in embedded clauses > UCV2s
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[65%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > To-infinitival clauses > Verbal to-infinitives
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[65%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Embedded Verb Second > Verb-second in embedded clauses > Linearity and referentiality
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[74%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Adjective Phrases
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[74%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > 1. Characterization and classification > 1.5. Tense, modality and aspect > 1.5.2. Modality
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[73%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > 1. Characterization and classification
