- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- Introduction to Frisian
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans Vowels
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans Consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans Vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological Processes
- Phonotactics
- Segment inventory
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1. Characterization and classification
- 2. Binominal Constructions
- 3. Modification
- The modification of a Head Noun in a Noun Phrase (Overview)
- The modification of the head N of a NP: (In)definite Pronouns
- The modification of head Nouns: Numerals
- The modification of Names
- The modification of substantive nouns: Articles
- The modification of substantive nouns: Demonstratives
- The modification of substantive nouns: Determiners
- Modification of substantive nouns: Genitive forms
- The modification of substantive nouns: Quantifiers
- The modification of substantive nouns: Questions and the relative pronoun welke 'which'
- 5. Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and Degree Quantification
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1. Characterization and classification
- 3. Alternations
- 5. Complement Clauses
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- Phonology
Any singleton consonant of the Dutch segment inventory can constitute an onset in Dutch, with the exception of the velar nasal /ŋ/.
Apart from the velar nasal, there are no restrictions on singleton consonants in onset position, neither word-initially nor word-medially, independent of whether the syllable is stressed or unstressed. In general, a single word-initial consonant may precede any vowel.
segment | word-initial & monosyllable | word-medial & stressed syllable | word-medial & unstressed syllable |
stops: | |||
/p/ | pen/pɛn/pen | trompet/trɔm.pɛt/trumpet | wimper/ʋɪm.pər/lash |
/b/ | boer/bur/farmer | kabouter/ka.bɑu.tər/gnome | album/ɑl.bʏm/album |
/t/ | tijd/tɛid/time | patat/pa.tɑt/potato chips | vector/vɛk.tɔr/vector |
/d/ | dag/dɑx/day | radijs/ra.dɛis/radish | saldo/sɑl.do/balance |
/k/ | kool/kol/cabbage | orkest/ɔr.kɛst/orchestra | iemker/im.kər/beekeeper |
/g/ (only in loan words) | goal(football term) | regatta/re.gɑta/regatta | slogan/slo.gən/slogan |
fricatives: | |||
/f/ | fiets/fits/bicycle | plafond/pla.fɔn(d)/ceiling | lucifer/ly.si.fər/match |
/v/ | vos/vɔs/fox | ivoor/i.vor/ebony | canvas/kɑn.vɑs/canvas |
/s/ | sok/sɔk/sock | arseen/ɑr.sen/arsenic | sesam/se.sɑm/sesame |
/z/ | zus/zʏs/sister | rozijn/ro.zɛin/raisin | perzik/pɛr.zɪk/peach |
/ʃ/ | sjaal/ʃal/scarf | artisjok/ɑr.ti.ʃɔk/artichoke | poncho/pɔn.ʃo/poncho |
/ʒ/ | jus/ʒy/(also [ʃy])gravy | budget/bʏd.ʒɛt/budget | stage/sta.ʒə/internship |
/x/ | geit/xɛit/goat | figuur/fi.xyr/figure | zegel/ze.xəl/seal, stamp |
/h/ | huis/hœys/house | mihoen/mi.hun/Chinese noodles | alcohol/ɑl.ko.hɔl/alcohol |
nasals: | |||
/m/ | maan/man/moon | kameel/ka.mel/camel | kermis/kɛr.mɪs/fair |
/n/ | neus/nøs/nose | planeet/pla.net/planet | koning/ko.nɪŋ/king |
/ŋ/ | - | - | engel/ɛŋəl/angel |
liquids: | |||
/l/ | lak/lɑk/varnish | piloot/pi.lot/pilot | eland/e.lɑnd/elk |
/r/ | rat/rɑt/rat | piraat/pi.rat/pirate | wereld/ʋe.rəld/world |
glides: | |||
/ʋ/ | wurm/ʋʏrm/worm | karwats/kɑr.ʋɑts/whip | kluwen/kly.ʋən/knot |
/j/ | jaar/jar/year | triljoen/trɪl.jun/trillion | ketjap/kɛt.jɑp/soy sauce |
The examples in the previous table illustrate that the distribution of the velar nasal differs from other Dutch consonants. The velar nasal /ŋ/ cannot constitute a word-initial singleton onset. However, the velar nasal can be found in onsets of word-medial syllables following B-class vowels as illustrated by the examples zwanger/zʋɑŋər/pregnant and engel/ɛŋəl/angel. Note that in all these cases the velar nasal occurs inter-vocalically, with the second vowel always being schwa (Kager 1986). According to Booij's (1995:36) analysis, the velar nasal is ambisyllabic, i.e. it belongs to the coda of the first syllable and the onset of the second syllable:

Since onsets and nuclei form different constituents of a syllable, co-occurrence restrictions between segments in onset and nucleus positions are very rare. The only restrictions that can be found in Dutch are: /h/ may not precede schwa, i.e. /*hə/, and glides may not precede vowels that are either too similar or identical with respect to place of articulation, i.e. /*ji/, /*ʋy/ and /*ʋø/ (see also pansyllabic constraints). Notice that schwa can only occur in unstressed syllables, whereas all other vowels can be found in stressed and unstressed syllables.
/i/ | /e/ | /y/ | /ø/ | /u/ | /o/ | /a/ | /ɪ/ | /ʏ/ | /ɛ/ | /ɑ/ | /ɔ/ | /ə/ | |
stops: | |||||||||||||
/p/ | pier | peer | puur | peul | poel | pool | paal | pit | put | pet | pat | pot | (wim)per |
/b/ | bier | beer | buur | beul | boet | boot | baat | bik | buk | bek | bak | bok | (zwab)ber |
/t/ | tier | teer | tuur | teut | toen | toon | taal | til | tulp | tel | tal | tol | (be)ter |
/d/ | dier | deel | duur | deur | doel | dool | daal | dik | dun | dek | dal | dol | (a)dem |
/k/ | kier | keer | kuur | keur | koer | koor | kaar | kin | kun | ken | kan | kon | (te)ken |
fricatives: | |||||||||||||
/f/ | fier | fee | fuut | feut | foef | fooi | faam | fiks | fut | fel | fat | fop | (oe)fen |
/v/ | vier | veer | vuur | veu(len) | voer | voor | vaar | vil | vul | vel | val | vol | (ze)ven |
/s/ | sier | safe | (re)çu | (mas)seur | soes | so(ber) | saai | sip | suf | cent | sap | sop | (wis)sel |
/z/ | zier | zeer | zuur | zeul | zoel | zool | zaal | zit | zulk | zet | zat | zot | (no)zem |
/x/ɣ/ | gier | geel | guur | geul | goed | goot | gaas | gil | gul | geld | gal | gold | (ze)gel |
/h/ | hier | heer | huur | heul | hoed | hoog | haag | hit | huls | hel | hal | hol | - |
nasals: | |||||||||||||
/m/ | mier | meer | muur | meug | moet | moot | maat | milt | mul | meld | mal | mol | (zo)mer |
/n/ | nier | neef | nu | neus | noest | nood | naad | nis | nut | net | nap | nok | (zo)ne |
liquids: | |||||||||||||
/l/ | lied | leed | lu(ren) | leuk | loens | loog | laag | lig | lucht | leg | lach | log | (veu)len |
/r/ | riet | reeds | ru(ne) | reuk | roet | rood | raad | rist | rust | rest | ras | ros | (we)reld |
glides: | |||||||||||||
/ʋ/ | wied | weet | - | - | woest | woog | waag | wil | wulp | wel | wal | wol | (klu)wen |
/j/ | - | je(gens) | ju(bel) | jeuk | joel | jool | jaar | jicht | juk | jek(ker) | jas | jok | (ma)jem |
(table adapted from Cohen et al. 1972:92)
According to Booij (1995) and Gussenhoven (1999), many Standard Dutch speakers in the west of the Netherlands no longer pronounce the voicing contrast between the fricatives /f/ and /v/ in word-initial positions. As a result, in this area words like vos/vɔs/fox are often pronounced with the initial voiceless fricative. Booij (1995) and Trommelen (1984) argue that a similar development can be found for the underlyingly velar fricatives /x, ɣ/, whose articulations merge into the voiceless uvular fricative [χ].
- Booij, Geert1995The phonology of DutchOxfordOxford University Press
- Booij, Geert1995The phonology of DutchOxfordOxford University Press
- Booij, Geert1995The phonology of DutchOxfordOxford University Press
- Cohen, Antonie, Ebeling, C.L., Fokkema, K. & Holk, A.G.F. van1972Fonologie van het Nederlands en het Fries. Inleiding tot de moderne klankleerMartinus Nijhoff
- Gussenhoven, Carlos1999DutchIPA HandbookCambridge University Press45-47
- Kager, René & Zonneveld, Wim1986Schwa, Syllables and Extrametricality in DutchThe Linguistic Review5197-221
- Trommelen, Mieke1984The Syllable in DutchDordrechtForis
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