- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- Introduction to Frisian
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans Vowels
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans Consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans Vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological Processes
- Phonotactics
- Segment inventory
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1. Characterization and classification
- 2. Binominal Constructions
- 3. Modification
- The modification of a Head Noun in a Noun Phrase (Overview)
- The modification of the head N of a NP: (In)definite Pronouns
- The modification of head Nouns: Numerals
- The modification of Names
- The modification of substantive nouns: Articles
- The modification of substantive nouns: Demonstratives
- The modification of substantive nouns: Determiners
- Modification of substantive nouns: Genitive forms
- The modification of substantive nouns: Quantifiers
- The modification of substantive nouns: Questions and the relative pronoun welke 'which'
- 5. Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and Degree Quantification
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1. Characterization and classification
- 3. Alternations
- 5. Complement Clauses
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- Phonology
-ing is an unstressed, productive, Germanic cohering suffix that derives nouns from verbs. In a few cases, nouns can also function as base. Adjectives are even rarer (a possible case is festingfortress from fêstfixed), and there is only one example with an adverbial base. Verbal bases create action nouns, but some -ing formations (only or also) acquire a more concrete meaning as a result of a secondary shift. A few examples are lêzeto read > lêzinglecture, feroarjeto change > feroaringchange and oersetteto translate > oersettingtranslation. The derived nouns have common gender. Other nominalizations may block derivation with -ing, for example *komming due to the existence of komstcoming. Derivations with -ing are special in that they are wavering in their choice of the plural suffix -en or -s.
The suffix -ing is pronounced as [Iŋ], but sometimes also weakened to [əŋ]. The suffix does not bear stress. All -ing derivations have common gender, and hence take the definite article de.
Derivation of nouns with a verbal base is productive. Examples are given in the table below:
Base form | Derivation |
boarjeto bore | boarringboring |
driigjeto threaten | drigingthreat |
fieleto feel | fielingfeeling |
mislearjeto fail | mislearringfailure |
betiizjeto confuse | betizingconfusion |
ûntheisterjeto upset | ûntheisteringdesperation |
oanbiedeto offer | oanbiedingspecial offer |
ôfwiketo deviate (from) | ôfwikingdeviation |
útwreidzjeto expand | útwreidingexpansion |
With respect to verbal bases, derivations in -ing may often be strict action nouns, just like the nominal infinitives in -en. However, in order to derive action nouns Frisian has a very strong preference for the nominal infinitive. This is in contrast to Dutch, in which this preference is much weaker, if it exists at all. Compare the following sentences in which Dutch and Frisian examples are given:
a. | het veranderen / de verandering van het klimaat |
the changing / the changement of the climate | |
climate change | |
Dutch |
a.' | it feroarjen / *?de feroaring fan it klimaat |
the changing / the changement of the climate | |
the change of the climate | |
Frisian |
b. | de bespreking / het bespreken van de problemen |
the discussion / the discussing of the problems | |
the discussion of the problems | |
Dutch |
b.' | it besprekken / *?de besprekking fan 'e swierrichheden |
the discussing / the discussion of the problems | |
the discussion of the problems | |
Frisian |
c. | het verbreken / de verbreking van de diplomatieke betrekkingen |
the break.up / the breaking of the diplomatic relations | |
the breaking up of the diplomatic relations | |
Dutch |
c.' | it ferbrekken / *?de ferbrekking fan 'e diplomatike ferbiningen |
the break.up / the breaking of the diplomatic relations | |
the breaking up of the diplomatic relations | |
Frisian |
d. | het vertalen / de vertaling van kinderboeken |
the translating / the translation of children.books | |
the translation of children's books | |
Dutch |
d.' | it oersetten / *?de oersetting fan berneboeken |
the translating / the translation of children.books | |
the translation of children's books | |
Frisian |
In contrast to nominal infinitives in -en, derivations in -ing undergo semantic specialisation on a large scale. In Frisian this is even clearer than in Dutch, due to the fact that the portion of Frisian -ing-derivations that is used as absolute action nouns is limited. So, next to the -ing-derivations which express an action noun proper, one can find derivations which denote the agent of the action, for example as in bewegingmovement, betsjinningservice or ferieningsociety. Examples of derivations denoting the patient an action are uteringutterance, oersettingtranslation and útstallingexhibition. Instrument names are fredingfence, fuorringlining or ferwaarmingheater.
In a few cases, the suffix -ing can derive nouns on the basis of other nouns. The most important examples are the following:
Base | Derivation |
hûshouse | huzinghousing |
hiemyard | hiemingyard |
lûdsound | lûdingsound |
tiidtime | tidingmessage |
bêdbed | bêdingbed(ding) |
keatlink | keattingchain |
iesbait | iezingschool (of fishes) |
Although this is not quite clear in all the existing cases, the semantic contribution seems to be something like collectiveness. The words huzinghousing and hiemingyard are used especially in a legal context.
Derivation of -ing from an adjectival base is even rarer. The clearest example is fêstfixed > fêstingfortress, although it is questionable whether this derivation is transparant for all speakers. An example in the same semantic vein is feiligingprotection from feilichsave. Alternatively, it could also be argued that such formations are derived from the verbs fêstjeto fix and feiligjeto protect. Such verbs could have been derived by way of conversion from the adjectives fêstfixed and feilichsave, respectively.
There is only one example in which we see an adverb functioning as base: deldown > dellingvalley.
In a number of cases, the base form of the derivation is opaque. Examples are huninghoney, keningking, hjerringherring, gadingtaste and fellingrim.
The suffix -ing has a variant -inge, which, however, will now be obsolete in the spoken language. In the written language the variant -inge belongs to the elevated style. Next to for example wijingconsecration (< wijeto consecrate), haaiïnghaymaking (< haaieto make hay) and huzinghousing (< hûshouse) one can find the forms wijingeconsecration, haaiïngehaymaking and huzingehousing. In a few cases, the variant -inge is lexicalized and therefore has survived, for example rispingeharvest, from rispjeto harvest (but also rispingharvest exists) and printingeprinting, from the verb printsjeto print. The noun tyngenews is a shortening (with deletion of medial /d/) of tidingenews.
In some derivations in which the base form ends in /k/ or /g/, the suffix -ing is replaced by, or possibly reanalyzed as -en, possibly as a result of dissimilation. Thus next to bokkingkipper we can find bokkenkipper, next to sigingbreeze we have sigenbreeze (< siigjeto breeze) and instead of *hantrekking we find hantrekkenhelping hand.
It seems that derivations in -ing can be blocked by other action nouns. One could argue that words like *komming, *dwaning and *farring are unacceptable because of the existence of formations like komstarrival, diedaction and feartspeed, respectively.
The fact that -ing derivations undergo competition from such lexicalized action nouns might be a consequence of their inherent tendency towards lexicalization. If contrastive pairs of -ing derivations with a different lexicalized action noun are found, then there is often a semantic or stylistic difference. Compare for example ropcall with roppingvocation, brekbreak with brekkingbreaking, winstprofit with winningextraction and ferjeffenisforgiveness with ferjouwingforgiveness.
Nouns ending in -ing regularly take the allomorph -kje as their diminutive suffix, e.g. hjerringherring > hjerrinkje. As to pluralization, both plural suffixes, i.e. -en and -s, are possible. More information on this issue, with additional literature, can be found variation of -en and -s.
This topic is mainly based on Hoekstra (1998:117-118).
- Hoekstra, Jarich1998Fryske wurdfoarmingLjouwertFryske Akademy
- Dutch
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- Afrikaans
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[81%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonological processes
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[78%] Dutch > Phonology > Spelling
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[78%] Dutch > Phonology > Accent & intonation
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[77%] Dutch > Phonology > Accent & intonation
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[77%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonology-morphology interface > Allomorphy
- /d/-insertion in the sequences /nər/, /lər/, and /rər/
[83%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes
- /{s/z}/-insertion between /{t/d}/ and /jə/
[83%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes
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[83%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Final devoicing
- /t/-deletion before the suffix -st
[82%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes
- Orthography
[82%] Frisian > Phonology > Orthography of Frisian
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[80%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes
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[79%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes > Consonant cluster simplification: Overview
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[78%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes
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[78%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Vowel related processes
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[78%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Vowel related processes
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- -ing
[87%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Nouns > Nominal suffixes
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[84%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Nouns > Nominal suffixes
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[83%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Nouns > Nominal suffixes
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[82%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Nouns > Nominal suffixes
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[82%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Adjectives > Adjectival suffixes
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[87%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Nominal suffixes > Noun as base
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[86%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Nominal suffixes > Verb as base
- -en
[86%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Nominal suffixes > Verb as base
- Number
[85%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Nouns
- Cardinal numbers
[85%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Numerals
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[79%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word-formation > Derivation
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[78%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word-formation
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[75%] Afrikaans > Morphology > List of affixes
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