- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- Introduction to Frisian
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans Vowels
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans Consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans Vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological Processes
- Phonotactics
- Segment inventory
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1. Characterization and classification
- 2. Binominal Constructions
- 3. Modification
- The modification of a Head Noun in a Noun Phrase (Overview)
- The modification of the head N of a NP: (In)definite Pronouns
- The modification of head Nouns: Numerals
- The modification of Names
- The modification of substantive nouns: Articles
- The modification of substantive nouns: Demonstratives
- The modification of substantive nouns: Determiners
- Modification of substantive nouns: Genitive forms
- The modification of substantive nouns: Quantifiers
- The modification of substantive nouns: Questions and the relative pronoun welke 'which'
- 5. Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and Degree Quantification
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1. Characterization and classification
- 3. Alternations
- 5. Complement Clauses
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- Phonology
be-/bə/ is a Germanic prefix that creates verbs out of other verbs, nouns or adjectives. This process is productive for verbs and nouns, though not for adjectives. The general template is:
- if X is a verb: `to focus action x upon something' bekijkento look at, inspect
- if X is a noun: `to provide with x' bemannento man, to staff
- if X is an adjective: `to be/become/make x' beveiligento protect
However, the meaning of many be-verbs is idiosyncratic. Examples of verbs with non-transparent semantics are begrijpenbe-gripto understand, belovenbe-praiseto promise and bevallenbe-fallto please, to give birth. In some cases, the root does not exist as an independent verb in contemporary Dutch, as in beginnenbe-?to begin.
be- is an inseparable verbalizing prefix.
Verbs with the prefix be- are mostly transitive, even if their bases are not. If the base is transitive, the arguments often switch places and properties. Compare the direct object and the prepositional object in the following example:
a. | Hij hang-t poster-s aan de muur | ||||||||||||||
PRO.3SG hang-3SG.PRS poster-PL on DEF.C.SG wall.C | |||||||||||||||
He's putting posters up on the wall |
b. | Hij be-hang-t de muur met poster-s | ||||||||||||||
PRO.3SG be-hang-3SG.PRS DEF.C.SG wall(C) with poster-PL | |||||||||||||||
He's putting posters up on the wall |
There are some intransitive verbs such as bevriezento freeze, bezinkento sink in, beschimmelento get mouldy or bezuinigento economize (bezuinigen is special because it can take a prepositional object). Some be-verbs are inherently reflexive; examples are zich bedrinkento get drunk, zich begevento go somewhere and zich behelpento make do with something. The final two require prepositional objects in addition to the obligatory reflexive pronoun.
The suffix attaches to Germanic verbs, nouns and adjectives, as well as to non-Germanic verbs with the suffix -eer (bestuderento study, becommentariërento comment, bespionerento spy on sbd.).
be-cannot be attached to prefixed verbs; forms such as *beuitoefenento be-practice are impossible. An exception is begeleidento accompany. Also, auxiliary verbs are not available as input (*bezullenbe-shall).
If the base is an irregular verb, the derived verb with be- is also irregular (kijkenlook > keeklooked, bekijkenlook at, inspect > bekeeklooked at, inspected).
Some be-verbs have stems of uncertain category status. Words such as beplantento plant something with somethingcould be derived from a noun (plantplant) or a verb stem (plantplant). In some cases, the meaning can disambiguate the structure: bewapenento provide with a weapon is probably derived from the noun wapenweapon rather than the verb wapenento arm. In other cases, there are no such clues: the verb bezurento regret, to pay forcould be derived from the noun zuuracid, the verb stem zuurbe/make/turn sour or the adjective zuursour.
A subclass of be-verbs is formed on the basis of the template [be-[N]-ig](V). Examples are bezichtigento view, inspect, bevochtigento moisten, beangstigento frighten, beëdigento swear somebody in, beschadigento damage and bekrachtigento confirm. Although the suffix -ig suggests that the noun is turned into an adjective before the whole is verbalized by means of be-, there are many cases in which the intermediate adjective is not actually a word of Dutch (*zichtig, *edig, *schadig. By contrast, some verbs used to have equivalents without -ig, e.g. beschulden next to beschuldigento blame.
In still other cases, the base is not or no longer an independent word of Dutch. Examples are beginnento begin, bedriegento deceive, begerento desire, belemmerento hinder, beslissento decide and bevelento give an order.
New be-verbs can be formed from nouns and verbs, but only occasionally from adjectives (a recent form might be begroenento revegetate). With nominal bases, the meaning is predictably provide with x. However, in actual usage, new forms appear to be rare.
be- is always unstressed, by virtue of its vowel, /ɘ/ (schwa), which cannot bear stress.
The prefix be-does not allow other prefixes to precede it, with the exception of her-, which indicates repeated action, as in zich herbezinnento rethink. These restrictions aside, be-verbs participate in many word formation processes. For example, they can be the base for nominalizations (berijderrider, horseman, besefunderstanding, realization) or adjectivizations (bespreekbaardiscussible, negotiable, bemoeiziekinterfering, meddlesome). Participles of be- verbs always lack the participial prefix ge- (begonnenbegun, bestudeerdstudied).
Some be- verbs have antonyms with ont- (bebossento afforest - ontbossento deforest).
There are a small number of forms that look like the participles of be-verbs, while these verbs do not actually exist. Examples are:
bebrild | bespectacled |
bebloed | bloody |
bebladerd | leafy |
bedauwd | dewy |
bedeesd | shy |
Such forms have been given the name "participium praeverbale" (Rijpma 1978: 77).
- Rijpma, E. & Schuringa, F.G1978Nederlandse spraakkunstGroningenWolters-Noordhoff
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[77%] Dutch > Phonology > Accent & intonation
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[75%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonology-morphology interface > Allomorphy
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[75%] Dutch > Phonology > Accent & intonation
- /d/-insertion in the sequences /nər/, /lər/, and /rər/
[80%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes
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[80%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Final devoicing
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[80%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes
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[80%] Frisian > Phonology > Orthography of Frisian
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[80%] Frisian > Phonology > Allomorphy
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[75%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes
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[75%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonotactics
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[74%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Vowel related processes
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[74%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Phonology-morphology interface
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[74%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes
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[88%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Verbs > Verbal prefixes
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[82%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Compounding
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[81%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Nouns > Nominal suffixes
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[81%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Adjectives > Adjectival suffixes
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[82%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Verbs
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[82%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Nominal suffixes > Noun as base
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[82%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Verbal suffixes > Noun as base
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[82%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Adjectives
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[76%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word-formation
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[76%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word-formation > Derivation
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[76%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word-formation > Derivation
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[75%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word-formation > Derivation
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[74%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word-formation > Derivation
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- 1.3.1.4. Ge-nominalization
[84%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 1 Characterization and classification > 1.3. Derivation of nouns > 1.3.1. Deverbal nouns
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[83%] Dutch > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure > 2.1. Nominal arguments
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[82%] Dutch > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure > 2.1. Nominal arguments
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[80%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases
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[78%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Predication and noun incorporation > Copulas
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[78%] Frisian > Syntax > Adposition Phrases > Intransitive adpositions
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[78%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > To-infinitival clauses > Verbal to-infinitives
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[81%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > 1. Characterization and classification
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[79%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > 3. Alternations > 3.2 Alternations involving the external argument > 3.2.1 Passivisation
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[79%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > 1. Characterization and classification
